The antibodies are the third line defense mechanism where they are presented on the B cells’ plasma membrane and function as antigen receptors (Karp, 2013). The B cells in our body are capable of producing antibodies, one of the proteins in our body. The number of antibodies in human body is more than 1012 and they are produced with or without the stimulation from antigens (Alberts et al., 2002). However, the number of genes encoding for antibodies is only approximately 20000 genes (Reece et al., 2011). The diversity of antibodies is due to DNA rearrangement of germ-line DNA to produce vast number of genes encoding for antibodies (Karp, 2013). The antibodies consist of light (L) chains (kappa and lambda) and heavy (H) chains which are linked by disulfide bonds as shown in Figure 1 (Karp, 2013). Both of the heavy and light chains consist of variable (V) and constant (C) region.
The immunoglobulin (Ig) genes are responsible in the production of membrane-bound and secreted antibodies (Reece et al., 2011). The production of light chain involves gene segments such as 40 variable (V) segments, 5 joining (J) segments, and a constant (C) segment. The variable region of the light chain is encoded by the variable and joining gene segments whereas the constant region is encoded by the constant gene segment. The assembly of each gene segment from variable and joining segments respectively with a constant segment to build a functional gene in germ cells is known as DNA rearrangement (Reece et al., 2011).
During the formation of kappa light chain as shown in Figure 2, the germ-line DNA is organized through somatic recombination (Karp, 2013). The linkage of a specific variable gene segment to a joining gene segment happens with the help of re...
... middle of paper ...
...Works Cited
Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, K., & Walter, P. Molecular biology of cell (4th ed.). New York, USA: Garland Science.
Immunoglobulin Gene Rearrangement. (n.d.). Retrieved 11 December, 2013 from http://www.oculist.net/downaton502/prof/ebook/duanes/pages/v8/ch025/005f.html
Karp, G. (2013). Cell and molecular biology: Concepts and experiments (7th ed.). USA: John Wiley & Sons.
Lefranc, M. P., & Huret, J. L. (2002). Atlas of genetics and cytogenetics in oncology and haematology. Retrieved from http://atlasgeneticsoncology.org/Educ/PolyIgEng.html
Microbiology and Immunology Mobile. (n.d.). Retrieved 11 December, 2013 from http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/mobile/m.immuno-6.htm
Reece, J.B., Urry, L.A., Cain, M.L., Wasserman, S.A., Minorsky, P.V., & Jackson, R.B.
(2011). Campbell biology (9th ed.). USA: Pearson.
The Lives of a Cell: Notes of a Biology Watcher by Lewis Thomas consists of short, insightful essays that offer the reader a different perspective on the world and on ourselves.
Hall, Linley Erin. “Understanding Genetics DNA and RNA.” New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2011. Print. 01 Apr. 2014.
Lewis, Ricki, (2014), Human Genetics, 11th Edition, Chapter 12. Gene Mutation. [VitalSource Bookshelf Online]. Retrieved from
Peterson, G. M. Lessons from familial cancers. Mid-Atlantic Cancer Genetics Network Newsletter. Fall 1999. http://www.macgn.org/nl13e.html.
Miller, K. R., & Levine, J. S. (2010). Miller & Levine biology. Boston, Mass: Pearson
8. Becker W. M, Hardin J, Kleinsmith L.J an Bertoni G (2010) Becker’s World of the Cell, 8th edition, San Francisco, Pearson Education Inc- Accessed 23/11/2013.
Fulda, K. G., and K. Lykens. "Abstract." National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 25 Aug. 0005. Web. 18 Mar. 2014. .
Watson, J. D., Gilman, M., Witkowski, J., Zoller, M. (1992). Recombinant DNA. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
The American Cancer Society publishes current advances made in cancer research on their website. Many of the exciting discoveries about how best to treat the disease focus on the genetic aspects associated with certain types of cancer. In addition, treatments aimed at genetic solutions to cancer may be more effective and may cause fewer adverse side effects than traditional cancer treatments (American Can...
The immune system is a fascinating structure it defends the body against foreign invaders like bacteria, viruses and parasites. There are two primary forms that make up the immune system they are, innate and adaptive systems. Both the innate and adaptive system plays a large role in the immune system. The innate is the primary system to defend against foreign materials and the adaptive is the secondary system that responds to specific issues.
Raven, P. H., Mason, K. A., Losos, J. B., Singer, S. R., & Johnson, G. B. (2011). Biology (9thth ed., pp. 418-419). New York City, NY: McGraw Hill.
Wojda, A. (2007). Effects of age and gender on micronucleus and chromosome nondisjunction frequencies in centenarians and younger subjects. Mutagenesis, 22(3), 195-200.
We are always hearing on the news and in newspapers about children catching diseases and often dying from them. Why is this happening when all of these diseases are easily preventable by simply being immunised, why aren’t parents getting their children Immunised, is it for religious beliefs or just carelessness. What ever their reason may be is it really good enough, because why would anyone rather let their child be able to catch and spread a deadly disease then have them Immunised, so Immunisation should be made compulsory for all children.
Campbell, N. A. & J. B. Reece, 8th eds. (2008). Biology. San Francisco: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.
J. Losos, K. Mason, S. Singer, based on the work of P. Raven, & G. Johnson, Biology, 8th ed., (McGraw-Hill Education (Asia), Singapore, 2008), pp. 994-995.