A Study Investigating the Effects of Categorisation on Recall
1. Introduction
Background research
The cognitive approach to psychology studies the processes the mind
uses to deal with information and looks at areas such as language,
learning, perception and memory. Cognitive psychologists commonly use
models to explain information flow. These models are abstract ways of
representing how the mind deals with information rather than defining
separate areas of the brain for each aspect of memory. The information
processing model uses the analogy of a computer system - information
is received and processed in various ways by the mind before being
passed into memory. Within the study of memory, there are three main
processes:
Encoding> Storage> Retrieval
Encoding is the process of perceiving and understanding input. Storage
is the way in which we commit information to memory. Retrieval is the
process used to access information that is not currently in conscious
memory. William James, an early psychologist, identified two types of
memory - "primary memory" and "secondary memory", which are now called
"short term memory" and "long term memory".
Atkinson and Shiffrin's "multi-store model of memory"
This theory states that there are three distinct memory stores -
sensory, short term and long term. The amount of attention paid and
"rehearsal" of information affects likelihood of this information
passing first into short term and then into long-term memory.
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Sensory memory has a very limited duration of around a second for
visual store and 2 seconds for the acoustic store. Only information
attended to is passed into short term memory - we would be swamped by
sensory information otherwise.
Short term memory has a limited storage capacity and a very short
duration. Short term memory can be lost by decay or displacement as
new information is added to the store. Miller (1956) suggests the
"magic number" 7 plus or minus 2 - that is between 5 and 9 bits of
information can be retained in short-term memory. By organising this
information in short term memory, between 5 and 9 "chunks" of
In the article, “The Critical Importance of Retrieval For Learning” the researchers were studying human learning and memory by presenting people with information to be learned in a study period and testing them on the information that they were told to learn in order to see what they were able to retain. They also pointed out that retrieval of information in a test, is considered a neutral event because it does not produce learning. Researchers were trying to find a correlation between the speed of something being learned and the rate at which it is forgotten
Our long is stored in two different categories. They are called Explicit Memory and Implicit Memory. Both contain various sub categories. These sub categories contain the various types of knowledge we have obtained over the years.
The night was young times were crazy and it was only the beginning of my senior year. It was still warm out and it still felt like summer; we didn’t know that we could have this much fun in one night, but we knew we were going to have fun no matter what. My first concert had to be one of the best nights of my life and one of my most favorite nights of my life during my senior year. It all began when my buddy Alex Kramper decided to give me a phone call and wanted to know if I wanted to go to an Imagine Dragons concert at the Verizon Wireless Amplifier Theater for only twenty bucks, I responded with a hell yeah, the concert was only in a weak. So we figure everything out and and figure that Alex Kramper, Tori Main, Trevor Waller, Kristen Kesler, and me are going to the concert, the next day we meet at Alex’s house to all ride in the concert together in Trevor’s truck, it was a planned booze cruise threw St.Louis. So I woke up early in the morning for the Saturday concert and do my chores early in the morning so I wouldn’t have to do them the next day all hungover. I finally finish all...
The Effect of Imagery on Recall Introduction: In cognitive psychology there are many ways in which people can enhance memory - mnemonics. This study is based on how imagery helps. memory. I will be able to do that.
a very good model for the time it was made and it is based on reliable
The Effects of Levels of Processing on Memory PB1: Identify the aim of the research and state the experimental/alternative hypothesis/es. (credited in the report mark scheme) To show how different levels of processing affects the memory. “People who process information deeply (i.e. semantic processing) tend to remember more than those who process information shallowly (i.e. visual processing). ” PB2: Explain why a directional or non-directional experimental/alternative hypothesis/es has been selected. (I mark) I have used a directional experimental hypothesis because past research, such as that by Craik and Tulving (1975) has proved this. PB3:
Collective memory is commonly defined as “shared individual memories” but in the source Collective Memory from a Psychological Perspective, it is better defined as “publicly available symbols maintained by society” (Coman et al.). The article went on to explain how collective memory differs from an individual memory in the sense that “an individual restructures the world” so that one can better remember, whereas in collective memory, the memory is restructured by society. In this case, the photograph from atop Mount Suribachi is most definitely a symbol that has been passed on from person to person, family to family, newspaper to newspaper since the day it was taken. It was printed in papers all over country, used as a means of gathering funds
1In the article, The Critical Importance of Retrieval for Learning, Jeffery D. Karpicke and Henry L. Roediger III expound on the long standing assumptions regarding the effects of repeated studying and repeated testing on learning in order to improve long-term retention on learning material. Recently studies have shown that research can occur during testing, contradictory to the traditional beliefs that learning occurs while people study and encode material. Another purpose of this research and this article was to examine a students’ assessments of their own learning, after getting a set of material under repeated study or repeated testing. Finally, The Critical Importance of Retrieval for Learning, explained further the relationship of speed
The mammalian brain contains several different memory systems, which can be divided into declarative and non-declarative memory systems. Declarative memory can be further divided into episodic and semantic memory, and non-declarative memory can be divided into priming, associative learning, and procedural memory.
Memory, symbol, and pattern affect the reading of literature in many different ways. In a sense, memory affects the reading of literature because it allows you to make connections between different pieces of text and recognize patterns that may occur as you read. As for patterns, they can stem out and allow you to reveal meanings that were hidden within the text. If something is repeatedly stated, it becomes clear that it is of vital importance in fully understanding what is happening in the text or a piece that is being read. Without this, reading literature can become very complicated in that we would not be able to realize the actual meaning of the text and what the author is trying to tell us as readers. Without patterns, the author would
The serial position effect has been studied extensively for many years. Researchers have designed a variety of different studies in order to analyze and explain both, the primacy and the recency effect. The primacy effect is the tendency for the first items presented in a series of words to be recalled more easily, or to be more influential than those presented at the end of the list. On the other end, there is also the recency effect. The recency effect is the tendency to recall the items located at the end of the list. Many studies have been designed to analyze how the primacy effect works and its accuracy. For instance, research compared the primacy and the recency effect (Jahnke, 1965). Forty-eight college students read lists of 6, 10, and 15 English words in a counterbalanced order. Twenty-four of the students were given instructions for the immediate serial recall of the list; while the other half of students were not aware that they would need to recall words from a list. Both groups received a total of 12 different lists. The words were read at a rate of one word per sec without any emphasis on specific word. In addition to that, the participants’ responses were recorded in an interval of 30 seconds. Results showed that the recency effect is stronger for free serial recall and for a longer interval than primacy effect (Jahnke, 1965). When instructions were given for a serial recall, primacy effects were stronger and recency effect weaker than when instructions were given for free recall. As the length of lists increased, the recency effect became stronger and more accurate.
In daily life, memory is used all the time. When we go to buy things, we would remember the list of items what we are going to buy. At school, we would also need to have revision in order to remember the materials for examination. Or even, when we meet friends, we would also need to recall their names. Thus it is important to know and understand how we remember such things so that we can effectively recall them when necessary. Obviously, we do not need to remember the exact position or order of things in daily life. We would have our own pattern for remember and retrieve information (Ashcraft, 2010). This is named as free recall, which items recalled in any order (Francis, Neath, MacKewn and Goldthwaite, 2004). However, many researchers found that the probability of recalling items (such as words, letters, or numbers) does in fact depend on the items position in a list. The most striking finding is that words at the beginning and end of the list are often easier to recall than those words in the middle of the list. Thus, when the results of a free recall experiment are plotted on a graph; a u-shaped serial position curve can be obtained. This is often referred to as the serial position effect that is affecting our memory (Smith, n.d.).
The human body is a complex structure. The brain being the most complex organ has the most work to do. The human memory consists of a process in which memories are stored and remembered. According to Intelegen Inc., there is this unique process of Memory in which the process only involves three stages. In the stages of this process, the memory is formed, retained, and retrieved. There are three stages of the five different types of Memory; the three stages are encoding, storage and retrieval.
names and for a short time even spelt his last name as Dui. Dewey died
Learning to tie shoes and ride a bike requires the encoding, storing, and retrieving of past observations of the procedure. With a lot of practice, children master these skills so well that they are able to remember them the rest of their lives. Memory is the storing of information over time. It is one of the most important concepts in learning; if things are not remembered, no learning can take place. As a process, memory refers to the "dynamic mechanism associated with the retention and retrieval of information about past experiences" (Sternberg 260). We use our memory about the past to help us understand the present. The study or memory in psychology is used in different ways, as well as there are many different ways to study how memory works in humans. In psychology there are many tasks used to measure memory, and different types of memory storages that human's use, such as sensory storing, or short term storing. There are also a lot of techniques that humans use to improve their memory, which they can use to learn, such as mnemonic devices. All these things can be classified as important issues in the study of human memory and ways of learning.