Tuberculosis is one of the major causes of death from many infectious diseases (3). Out of 9 million people who are infected with mycobacteria, about 2 million deaths occur from tuberculosis every year (3). Unfortunately, the prevalence of tuberculosis is in a continuous increase due to increased number of Human immunodeificnecy virus (HIV) patients, bacterial resistance to anti-tuberculous drugs, and growing number of recreational drug users (3). The pathogen responsible for bacterial infection, potentially causing tuberculosis, is mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) (2). Persons with adequate immune system can control the bacterial infection so mycobacteria remain dormant for a long time (11). In a typical tuberculous granuloma, mature macrophages accumulate around a caseous lesion to prevent mycobacteria from leaking into the extracellular matrix (11). Therefore, only those with less effective immune systems will progress to primary progressive tuberculosis (2). When a patient progresses to active tuberculosis, early signs and symptoms include extreme fatigue, weight loss, and fever (7). The inflammatory and immune responses cause wasting that involves a period of rapid fat loss and muscle loss (7). Patients eventually develop cough, blood-streaked sputum from lung abscess, as well as pleuritic chest pain from the inflamed parenchyma (7). To fight against this grave and fatal disease, number of anti-tuberculous drugs was invented in hope of finding a cure. Although some first-line drugs (Isoniazid and Rifampicin) first appeared to be effective in treating tuberculosis, these anti-tuberculous drugs have failed to eradicate all cases of tuberculosis. Instead, anti-tuberculous drugs introduced more challenges in tuberculosis treatmen...
... middle of paper ...
...different conformation than the wild-type DNA. Therefore, MTB drug resistance can be determined by measuring different electrophoresis mobility on a gel (9). Further research on drug resistance mechanisms and associated mutations can be used for diagnosis and clinical care of individual patients with tuberculosis, as well as potentially combating resistant tuberculosis.
Over many years of biomedical research, there were great advances in understanding of the epidemiology and pathogenesis of tuberculosis. However, the prevalence of tuberculosis is still remains high, mainly due to acquired or developed drug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The increase in incidences of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) urgently suggests the development of more effective drugs, which specifically targets biochemical pathway and a stage of pathogen’s life cycle.
pBK-CMV is a plasmid vector 4518 in size, it also contains a multiple coding site (polylinker) that has recognition sequences for many restriction endonucleases. cDNA molecule CHI-1, which is 600bp, has been previously inserted. pUC19 is a cloning vector developed by….. in …….at….(REF). This vector is 2686bp in size and contains a 54 base pair (bp) polylinker containing 13 specific restriction sites, Xba1 and EcoR1 inclusive. It makes a good cloning vector as it is small in size, this makes it easier to be taken up by its host during transformation and allows for a faster replication time (Green, 2015). It contains an origin of replication pMB1 which is essential to be able to replicate. pMB1 has a high copy number allowing for multiple copies to be made (REF hcn pmb1). The pUC19 plasmid vector contains an ampicillin resistance gene, the host containing this plasmid will survive in the presence of ampicillin allowing for the selection of transformed host bacteria. The polylinker of pUC19 is contained within a lacz’ gene allowing us to distinguish between recombinant pUC19 and non-recombinant pUC19 through a process call insertional inactivation (Green, 2015).
Drug resistance in mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) has become a severe global health threat. The fight against TB is now facing major challenges due to the appearance of Multi-Drug Resistant Tuberculosis (MDR-TB) and more recently, the virtually untreatable Extensively Drug Resistant Tuberculosis (XDR-TB). MDR-TB are strains that are resistant to both top first-line drugs, Isoniazid and Rifampin, while XDR-TB are MDR-TB strains that are also resistant to any fluoroquinolone and one or more of 3 injectable drugs. With this new resistance, there emerges a great need to find new drugs that are as effective, yet bypass the problem of resistance. One method of research is to find new vulnerabilities of tuberculosis to use as new target sites of drugs. This method is highly expensive (Scheffler, Colmer, Tynan, Demain, & Gullo, 2013), and requires intense and lengthy research just to implicate the new target site. An alternative is to develop new drugs that work on the same already known target as the first-line drugs, but by a different mechanism, thereby bypassing the resistance of the TB to the drug.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MT) is a slender, rod-shaped, aerobic bacillus which causes tuberculosis. Tuberculosis (TB) is an airborn infection which is transmitted via inhaling droplet nuclei circulating in the air. These droplets are expelled from the respiratory secretion of people who have active TB through coughing, sneezing, and talking (Porth, 2011). Some bacilli stay in the upper airway and are swept out by mucus-secreting goblet cells and cilia on the surface of the airway. Others will escape from this protective mechanism to travel and settle down at alveoli (Porth, 2011). Local inflammatory reaction occurs and macrophages are cells that act as next line defense mechanism to fight with mycobacteria. First they engulf micobacteria, try to reduce their strength and ability, and kill them. In the same way they send antigen to helper T lymphocytes to initiate a cell-mediated immune response (Knechel, 2009). The infected macrophages will send produced cytokines and enzymes to breakdown mycobacteria’s protein. It is the released cytokines that attract T ly...
Tuberculosis or TB, referred to by some as the White death due to the epidemic that arose in Europe that lasted two hundred years, is usually caused by in humans by a microorganism by substrains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It’s hard to determine the exact years in which TB first infected humans, but since the disease leaves traces on the bone in can be found in archeological record and it is believed to go all the way back to the B.C. era. Although it is hard to tell if the bone damage was truly from TB, there is research that shows that it has been around since the 17th and 18th centuries with a high number of incidences of TB, and in 1882 Dr. Robert Koch announced that his discovery of the causing factor of TB, which is Mycobacterium tuberculosis. A tuberculosis bacterium is spread through the air by an infected person speaking, coughing, or sneezing. Due to the fact the bacteria is protected by a waxy cell all, the body’s defense takes weeks to develop any kind of immunity and it allows the bacteria to exponentially multiply freely within the body. If TB it’s left untreated it will eat rapidly through many tissues, usually beginning with the lungs, lymph nodes, and kidneys. As the infection spreads to the lungs, it causes a cough and fluid between the chest wall and lungs, which leads to chest pains, severe shortness of breath, and potential heart failure. TB also infects bones and joints that can produce arthritis like pain and characteristic bone damage. Another possibility is that it may affect the fluid around the brain, causing meningitis, which can lead to fever, drowsiness, and eventually coma and death (Wingerson, 2009).
Tuberculosis is a bacteria infection that affects many people over the world. Treatment for the disease helps people but it is limited. Vaccination is sought but, like treatment, is limited. Because of these limitations Tuberculosis spreads and kills easily. Tuberculosis can be cured by constant drug therapy.
Other key features of M. tuberculosis are its slow growth rate, dormancy, intracellular pathogenesis and genetic homogeneity. In infected animals or synthetic medium, M. tuberculosis has a generation time of about 24 hours. The short generation time contributes to the chronic nature of the tuberculosis disease and long treatment courses for infected patien...
My hypothesis on Tuberculosis is that it is a very deadly disease that causes a persons lungs to fill with blood. This can harm the body by making the body suffocate itself when the lungs fill with blood.
Education can be a powerful weapon in fighting tuberculosis in the United States also around the world. Today, it is encouraging how so many people know how TB contracts human and what cause drug resistant effects among those who are under TB treatment.
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infection that can attack any part of the body, but it is normally found in the lungs (Huether, McCance, Brashers and Rote, 2008,). TB is an infection caused by a acid-fast bacillus also know as Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Huether et al. 2008) It is one of the leading causes of death in Asia, China, Indian, Indonesia and Pakistan (Huether et al. 2008). These countries show that in most cases the incidence rate is highest in young adults, and are usually the result from re-infection in recent infections. The spread of TB is attributed to the emigration of infected people from high-prevalent countries, substance abuse, poverty, transmission in crowd places, and the lack of proper medical care for the infected individuals (Huether et al. 2008).
Tuberculosis (TB) is the most common disease worldwide which caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. With close to 10 million new cases per year, and a pool of two billion latently infected individuals, control efforts are struggling in many parts of the world (The bacteria usually attack the lungs, but they can also damage other parts of the body (Comas and Gagneux, 2009). It is important for a nurse to understand how tuberculosis develops, how to diagnosis, treatment, and prevent.
Tuberculosis or known as TB remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the world, especially in developing countries. A combination of factors including high costs, limited resources and the poor performance of various diagnostic tests make the diagnosis of TB difficult in developing countries. According to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2014), one third of the world’s population is infected with tuberculosis. In 2012, nearly nine million people around the world become sick with tuberculosis disease, and there were around one point three million TB related deaths worldwide.
Active TB patients are IGRA positive and are symptomatic. The granuloma model: macrophages get infected in non-activated macrophages, necrosis occurs, lymphocytes also activate macrophages. MTB continue to grow and spread. The tubercles bexome liuqified and extracellular bacterial growth ensue, releases liquifed caseous material into the bronchiole causes causing and this can be transmitted tooter people.
Tuberculosis needed to be treated otherwise it can be deadly. It can affect lungs and all other parts ...
Mycobacterium tuberculosis has been present in the human population for thousands of years; fragments of the spinal column from Egyptian mummies from 2400 BCE show definite pathological signs of tubercular decay. Called "consumption," tuberculosis was recognized as the leading cause of mortality by 1650. Using a new staining technique, Robert Koch identified the bacterium responsible for causing consumption in 1882. While scientists finally had a target for fighting the disease, they did not have the means to treat patients; the spread of infection was controlled only by attempting to isolate patients. At the turn of the twentieth century, more than 80% of the population in the United States was infected before age 20, and tuberculosis was still the leading cause of death. The production of antibiotics in the 1940’s allowed physicians to begin effectively treating patients, leading to huge drops in the death rate of the disease. Tuberculosis is still a major cause of mortality in young adults worldwide, but is less of a problem in developed countries.
Tuberculosis (TB) is an ancient disease, with evidence found in human remains dating back over 9000 years, to the Neolithic era. 1 It was identified and described by Hippocrates as early as 460BC, and continued to be documented in such places as ancient Rome, Egypt, India and China. 2 3 4 5