Introduction
Prostate Cancer (PCa) is the most common cancer affecting men and the second leading cause of cancer death among American men (Qaseem, Denberg, Owens, & Shekelle, 2013). Medical professionals have been using prostate specific antigen (PSA) screenings along with digital rectal exam (DRE) for many years to screen for prostate cancer. PSA was first identified in 1966 in semen, followed by the identification of PSA in blood in 1979. The PSA test has been approved for use since 1994 to detect early prostate cancer. Most men that are greater than 50 years of age in the U.S. have had PSA screening, and many have been tested repeatedly. DRE is performed to determine prostate location, size, and the presence of nodules.
Despite widespread use of prostate specific antigen serologic testing and DRE to screen for PCa in men, authorities disagree on the benefit and optimal use of these screenings. The controversial issues are as follows. PSA screening leads to over detection of harmless or insignificant tumors and therefore over treatment. There is inconsistent evidence and at best a modest effect that PSA screening actually reduces the risk of death from PCa. Current practice of reassuring men who have a PSA level < 4 ng/ml that they are cancer free is no longer justified. Lastly, a decreasing correlation has been reported between PSA volume and the largest tumor in prostate gland. Furthermore, no controlled studies have shown a reduction in morbidity or mortality with use of DRE. DRE is also limited to peripheral tumors, and some are non palpable. This emphasizes the need for changing the approach of screening and treating PCa.
In 2002 USPSTF gave PSA screening grade of I; concluding there was insufficient evidence to recomme...
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AAFP article: http://www.aafp.org/news-now/health-of-the-public/20120522psascreenrec.html http://xnet.kp.org/permanentejournal/fall99pj/prostate.html
Howrey, B. T., Kuo, Y., Lin, Y., & Goodwin, J. S. (2013). The Impact of PSA Screening on PCaMortality and Overdiagnosis of PCain the United States. Journals Of Gerontology: Series A: Biological Sciences And Medical Sciences, 68(1), 56-61.
Nichol, M. B., Wu, J., Huang, J., Denham, D., Frencher, S. K., & Jacobsen, S. J. (2012). Cost-effectiveness of Prostate Health Index for PCa detection. BJU International, 110(3), 353-362. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2011.10751.x http://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/medicalpubs/diseasemanagement/hematology-oncology/prostate-cancer/ http://www.medicare.gov/Pubs/pdf/10110.pdf
http://www.pcf.org/site/c.leJRIROrEpH/b.5802029/k.31EA/Prevention.htm
The New England Journal of Medicine -- February 1, 1996 -- Vol. 334, No. 5
Kellermann, A., & Peleg, K. (2013, May 29). The New England journal of medicine. Retrieved from http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1305304
As the author highlighted in this book, the quickest way to be diagnosed for prostate cancer is to be screened for it; the same notion applies for many other diseases and illness. With the advent of the technological age, doctors are now able to see more than they did before, and therefore, are more quick to diagnose illnesses and cancers early. As Welch explains, the problem with that is that not all illness or cancers will kill you; some cancers will stick around, but never cause any harm. So, this leads to screening for cancers that were never going to kill a patient, that end up being detected early on and dealt with, thus giving credit to early screening as a success story. As Welch explains, most illnesses and injuries that undertake a natural course of events, without medical intervention, usually heal on their own. This is problematic because it creates this idea that medical intervention is helpful and necessary, when that is not always the case. In general, as a society, the benefits of medical care have been over-exaggerated, while the harms of medical care have been largely ignored. If Welchs’ instructions were followed, a closer examination of the effect of screenings and tests would be the new medical
Omitting this test and performing all standard tests for diagnosis of this condition would not adversely affect the member’s condition or the quality of the medical care rendered.
N. pag. -. Web. The Web. The Web. Staff, Mayo Clinic -.
Prostate cancer has been the number one diagnosed cancer today. According to the World Health Organization, approximately one in every ten American men will develop prostate cancer during his lifespan. This cancer has been very common in the last few years. American Cancer Society reported over 200,000 new cases of prostate cancer. Huge number of population suffered severely. The prostate is significant for reproduction. It helps the substances that are involved in fertilization and transporting of sperm as well as survival. Prostate tumor is developed in the prostate gland, which is found in the men’s reproductive system. Prostate is the size of a walnut, which is located inferiorly in the penis and anterior to the rectum. It contains the connective tissue, which includes the glandular and fibrous tissues. This tumor starts to develop during their adolescent year due to the control of the male reproductive hormones. When the tumor starts to develop, it begins at the urethra, which is a tube that releases the urine from the bladder. The tumor is a slow development yet it is contagious to the other parts of the body, such as it does affect the pelvic bones, lungs, liver, and the lower vertebrae (Zenka, 2009).
Bowers, L., Allan, T., Simpson, A., Nijman, H., & Warren, J. (2007). Adverse Incidents, Patient
For these reasons, minorities often put off the expense of seeing a doctor until they have advanced disease and are past being easily treated. A lack of education, rural or inner city residence, unemployment, and low literacy rate may also contribute to higher cancer mortality rates for some communities. In several studies researchers investigates whether socioeconomic status is the reason for the disparity in prostate cancer incidence, where African Americans and Non- Hispanic Whites are the top two candidates for prostate cancer. Some results found that the highest level of cancer incidence was positively correlated with low socioeconomic status (Cheng, et al.,
Testicular cancer is only present in males because only males have testicles. About 8,820 cases of testicular cancer are diagnosed every year. About 380 men die from testicular cancer each year. This is actually a very high survival rate. Also, the risk of a man dying from testicular cancer is about 1 in 5,000 because it is highly treatable and sometimes can be curable. It seems that the group most affected by testicular cancer is middle aged men, the average age to be diagnosed is 33. Only 6% of testicular cancer cases occur in children and teens, and about 7% of testicular cancer cases are men above 55 years old. All in all, testicular cancer is a type of cancer only in males and starts off in the testicles. It is not that common and the survival rate is very high because of the technology and doctors of today.
... to develop. In adult males the most frequently diagnosed cancer is prostate cancer, which is diagnosed in one out of every seven men. Prostate cancer is a cancer that contains familial tendencies, when past generations of an individual have been diagnosed, the likelihood of inheriting it is greatly increased. Though the most frequent cancer found in adult males, prostate cancer does not cause the most fatalities from cancers in adult males. When treated early and correctly, the cancer is not commonly fatal, and less than 3% of American males with prostate cancer die from the illness itself (Prostate Cancer 5).
Plecas, D., McCormick, A. V., Levine, J., Neal, P., & Cohen, I. M. (2011). Evidence-based
JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association. 14 Nov. 2001: 2322. Academic Search Complete. Web.
Criteria C states that the symptoms aren’t due to the direct physiological effects of a substance. There was no evidence that
Musiek, F.E., Gollegly, K.M., Lamb, L.E., & Lamb, P. (1990). Selected issues in screening for