Fallibilism and Epistemology
The quest for certainty has gotten epistemology into a lot of hot water, and I propose we give it up as a mistake. We should freely admit we can’t be certain of anything, and move on. It is, of course, a reasonable question whether we can consistently get along without certainty, and even if it is possible, whether there is some terrible price to be paid if we do. I will argue that it is indeed possible to do without any epistemologically useful notion of certainty. I will also argue that, while there may be prices to be paid, they are by no means as high as the prices to paid by those who wish to keep certainty as a viable epistemological concept.
But first, let me make good my claim that a lot of trouble in epistemology has been caused by the quest for certainty. First, consider the case of Plato. In the Republic, Plato argues that since knowledge requires certainty, and certainty requires an unchanging subject matter, true knowledge can be only of unchanging forms. There can be no true knowledge of the changing physical world, which then becomes the realm of changing, uncertain doxa, mere opinion. In a stroke, all the kinds of knowledge we take to be constitutive of science are demoted. It is true that Plato has other reasons for espousing his theory of forms, and even if he had himself followed by advice and given up on certainty, he would have had ample reason to retain the theory. Nevertheless, some of his most perplexing epistemological pronouncements would have been left entirely unmotivated. For example, the doctrine of Recollection espoused in the Meno rests on the claim that the only possible explanation for geometrical knowledge, given its apparent innateness and certainty, is that everyone was in contact with the forms before they were born. No certainty, no problem, or at least a different problem. It would have been open to him then to embrace the justified true belief analysis of knowledge--more accurately, true belief with a logos--that he ultimately rejects in the Theaetetus. Epistemology could have leaped ahead two millennia, and some Hellenistic Greek could have been Ed Gettier.
Perhaps a more famous victim of the quest for certainty is Descartes. He noticed that he was often wrong about things he thought he knew, even about some things he believed with a great deal of confidence. Not only have some of hi...
... middle of paper ...
... the most certainty, and that we are in general bad judges of the success of our own epistemic endeavors, is enough to show that we ought to be very cautious indeed. Just as a judge may not rule on a case in which he has an interest, because people in that situation are prone to bias, so we ought to behave as if we could be wrong in any particular case, because we are wrong in so many cases. We think it the best procedure in general if the particular judge is not permitted to preside in that case, even if he is in fact immune to bias. In the same way, we should think it right to treat every one of our beliefs as potentially in error, even if in fact we cannot be wrong. The question fallibilism answers is the question of what rules are best for knowledge-seeking as an endeavor. So fallibilism is best understood, not as a thesis about our abilities, but as a rule to guide our epistemic endeavors.
One final note. Espousing fallibilism is a no-lose proposition. If my arguments succeed, I have shown fallibilism to be a desirable view. If my arguments fail, I have given inductive support to fallibilism. Either way, fallibilism turns out more probable. So you might as well give up now.
If Ontario is able to get an equal pay law that essentially benefits women than America should consider looking into their law. With the amount of schooling both men and women are required to go through in order to obtain a certain job, there should be some type of equal wage involved. In England, there is a similar situation going on involving the wage gap. Where several women believe that they are not getting the fair amount of income when it comes to the amount of time and effort they put into the job. Amanda Stratton, an entrepreneur and co-founder of Hacker Studios, believes that individuals should find solutions from an evidence-based perspective in order end wage discrimination (“Women’s”). By doing this, it will help with the common usage of basis towards males and females on whether they deserve to get paid more than one another.
Fallacies, in terms of logic, are forms of flawed thinking. They are obstacles—weeds in the garden of the mind, which can be difficult to distinguish from the plants if not closely observed. The nature of fallacies falls in with our nature as human beings—they do not like to be discovered and plucked any more than we like to be the ones to admit that we are incorrect. Accepting responsibility for our actions, and in this case fallacies in our thinking, is the first step to change. Thus, if we can overcome our human pride and admit our flaws to ourselves, we are then empowered to correct them. Therein lies the value of examining these fallacies, which is an important component of studying critical thinking.
In my opinion and based on my readings of our textbook The American Promise: A History of the United States by James Roark, the most pressing issue the young republic faced after the new congress took power under the new constitution in 1789, and George Washington became president was searching for stability. In the young republic 's search for stability they needed to cover many bases politically, socially, and culturally.
Most people know what wisdom is. On the other hand though, why is it valued so highly in western civilization? Wisdom is a building block of western civilization. Wisdom was valued even in ancient Greece. Socrates was known as the wise scholar. Wisdom has always been a trait that people have admired. Wisdom is admired because wisdom leads to make right choices in life. A wise person would know when to push their luck or when to back down. The complete understanding of a situation is a very desirable trait for all people.
In Hamlet, Hamlet wants to avenge his father’s death, but wonders whether the struggle of living and carrying through with his plans is worth the hardships, or if death is a better option. Shakespeare writes a soliloquy where Hamlet discusses with himself whether he should live or die. Shakespeare discusses the idea of suicide through metaphors, rhetorical questions, and repetition until Hamlet decides that he is too afraid of death to commit suicide.
Women are more than half the work force and are graduating at higher rates then men and continue to earn considerably less then men. There are several contributing factors to the gender wage gap. Women experience gender discrimination in the work force even though it’s been illegal since the Equal Pay Act in 1963. One of the challenges for women is uncovering discrimination. There is a lack of transparency in earnings because employees are either contractually prohibited or it’s strongly discouraged from being discussed. Discrimination also occurs in the restricting of women’s access to jobs with the highest commission payments, or access to lucrative clients.
Starting in 2018 British companies that employ more than 250 individuals will have to report information regarding how much they are paying men and women for their salaries and bonuses. The British government is hoping that this will shame companies into fixing the gender gap. By showing how much they pay each gender and how many men and women are in each salary bracket they hope that companies that have large pay gaps will have a hard time hiring competitive talent and be forced to close the gap. Despite this step forward, some believe that more can, and needs to be, done. Sam Smethers, chief executive of The Fawcett Society, an organization that works towards gender equality, believes that in addition to shaming companies, there needs to be penalties put in place that will help force companies to change. Others, like Carolyn Fairbairn, a director general of a
Quantitative research is the oldest form of research; it is incredibly formal, stemming from positivism paradigm, or the outside looking in approach. The method is about trying to establish cause and affect relationships between variables. This method can be considered non biased as the researcher isn’t us...
What does it mean to be wise? Webster's Dictionary defines the word "wise" as being "marked by deep understanding, keen discerment". Through the telling of the ancient Mariner's tale, the Wedding-Guest became sadder and wiser. He became sad in that he identified himself with the shallow and self-absorbed mariner. However, the mariner changed his ways. The Wedding-Guest became wise through realizing that he himself needed to alter his ways.
to be incorrect about everything because he has doubt, and to posses doubt, there must be
Often we come across of fallacies during our daily conversations. The fallacies are either formal or informal. We use informal fallacies while having casual chatting very often. Some people know about these fallacies while some people don’t know about fallacies, but still they use. Informal fallacies can be defined as follows:
Quantitative studies are primarily numbers based. They deal with large cohort groups as well as analyze large amounts of data. “A quantitative researcher typically tries to measure variables in some way, perhaps by using commonly accepted measures of the physical world (e.g., rulers, thermometers, oscilloscopes) or carefully designed measures of psychological characteristics or behaviors (e.g., tests, questionnaires, rating scales)” (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010, p. 94).
Two thousand years after Plato has written down the allegory, it is amazing how we can still relate it to our everyday lives. As Plato wrote in "The Allegory of the Cave," education is a very important phase that leads us to wisdom and helps us to get accustomed to the real world with less difficulty. Apparently, this theory has proven to be correct for the past two thousand years. Until today, those of higher wisdoms are mostly people who have mastered a thorough and solid education; and they certainly have become the leaders of the community who share their knowledge and enlighten many people.
In conclusion suicide is used all throughout Shakespeare’s works. Suicide is actually used an unlucky thirteen times in some of his most popular plays. In Hamlet suicide is an issue of controversy and question. Hamlet is a confused man from everything that he has experienced in such a short period of time. And even though Hamlet contemplates suicide he is not the one who suffers from it. Ophelia is actually is the victim of the actual act of suicide. His morality, religion, and philosophical views on suicide keep him from committing the dreaded act. Even though suicide still goes on today and the questioning of the issue, it has been like this for a very long time.
According to the novel, there was a conflict about Sophie Mol’s funeral. After unexpected death of Sophie Mol, most of the family refuses to have a proper funeral because of her religion. The family argues that they are Christian but Sophie Mol is not who did not baptized. It is such a sad moment that relating religion issue to a little girl’s death. Also, noticeable person who’s evolved with the religious discrimination is Baby Kochamma. She is the person with bitterness and jealousy based on this issue. She hated Velutha so much, because he in love with Ammu and even with her children twins. She could not accept the fact that untouchable and Hindu related to her family. Eventually, Baby Kochamma is the one who lead Velutha to death by threatened the twins and lying to polices. The novel address that religion is just an excuse of internal ambition. Baby Kochamma is the example of the result a terrible tragic of religious