Cryptosporidium Parvum: Transmission and Infection
Cryptosporidium parvum is a protozoan intestinal parasite causing a short-term enteric illness in individuals with functioning immune systems, and can cause a potentially fatal infection in immunosuppressed individuals. Because of C. parvum’s resistance to many of the procedures used to process drinking water and food, and the parasite’s extremely high fecundity, the potential for a large scale outbreak is very high. In fact, C. parvum was responsible for an outbreak in Milwaukee in 1993 when an estimated 403,000 people became ill. This was the largest waterborne outbreak of disease in United States history. This paper will cover some aspects of C. parvum’s life cycle, human sickness caused by the parasite, routes of transmission, and practices of control.
There are six different species of Cryptosporidium, C. parvum being the only species which infects mammals (Gutierrez, 1990). Oocysts, which are ingested by the mammal host, each contain four sporozoites. Upon excystment in the small intestine, the sporozoites infect an intestinal epithelial cell by becoming attached to the base of the microvilli. The sexual stages follow, where zygotes and eventually oocysts are formed. But C. parvum also has an “auto-infecting” asexual stage in which thin walled oocysts are produced to cause infection farther along in the intestine (Donnelly & Stentiford,1997). Approximately 20% of the oocysts produced will have these thin walls, leaving 80% of the oocysts to be excreted out of the host and into the environment, where they will be infective immediately. Thirty oocysts are enough to cause infection, and one infected person can excrete over a billion oocysts in one day (Graczyk et al., 2000).
Symptoms of Cryptosporidiosis in immunocompetent individuals include watery diarrhea (up to 3 liters a day), cramps, weight and appetite loss, nausea, vomiting and malaise (Gutierrez, 1990). Symptoms begin 3 to 5 days after the initial infection, and can last up to 2 weeks. Several relapses may occur due to the auto infecting mechanism of the parasite, but an otherwise healthy individual will rarely experience any more than 21 days of symptoms. Oocysts, however, may continue to be shed in the host’s feces for up to 2 months (Gutierrez, 1990).
Because there is no kno...
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...ter supplies and reserves for oocysts, and plans for containment in the event of an outbreak. Education of the public should also occur so that symptoms are reported in a timely manner to authorities so that, in case of an outbreak, measures could be taken to prevent further infection.
References
Donnelly, J.K., Stentiford, E.I. (1997) “The Cryptosporidium Problem in Water Food Supplies” Lebensm.-Wiss.U.-Technol., 30, 111-120
Graczyk, T.K., Evans, B.M., Shiff, C.J., Karreman, H.J. Patz, J.A. (2000) “Environmental and Geographical Factors Contributing to Watershed
Contamination with Cryptosporidium parvum Oocysts” Environmental Research Section A 82, 263-271
Graczyk, T.K., Fayer, R., Trout, J.M., Jenkins, M.C., Higgins, J., Lewis, E.J.Farley, C.A. “Susceptibility of the Chesapeake Bay to Environmental
Contamination with Cryptosporidium parvum” Environmental Research Section A 82, 106-112
Carpenter, C., Fayer, R., Trout, J., Beach, M.J., “Chlorine Disinfection of Recreational Water for Cryptosporidium parvum”
CDC Dispatch--- www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol5no4/carpenter.htm
Gutierrez, Yezid (1990) “Diagnostic Pathology of Parasitic Infections with Clinical Correlations” 94-107
ABSTRACT: Water samples from local ponds and lakes and snow runoff were collected and tested for coliform as well as Escherichia coli. Humans as well as animals come into contact with these areas, some are used for recreational activities such as swimming and some are a source of drinking water for both animals and humans The main goal of this experiment was to see which lakes, snow run off and ponds tested positive for coliform or Escherichia coli and to come up with some reasoning as to why. It was found that the more remote pond with less contact contained the most Escherichia coli. However, another lake that many swim in and use as their drinking water indeed tested positive for a small amount of Escherichia coli. The two samples from the snow showed negative results for both coliform and Escherichia coli and the two more public ponds that aren’t as commonly used as a source of human drinking water but animal drinking water tested in the higher range for coliforms but in the little to no Escherichia coli range. It was concluded that the remote pond should be avoided as it’s not a safe source of drinking water for humans or animals. Other than that, the the other ponds are likely to be safe from Escherichia coli, but coliforms are a risk factor.
This final microbe is far less dangerous and easier to comprehend than the formerly mentioned ones. Histoplasma Capsulatum, often called histoplasmosis, is caused by a fungus called Histoplasma (1). This fungus thrives within earthy environments with lots of soil filled with bird and bat droppings (1). It is found mainly in the United States, specifically within the central and eastern states, such as around the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys (1). The fungus can also be found within central and South America, Africa, Asia, Australia, and small parts of Europe (1). While most people do not get sick, those who do become infected when breathing in the microscopic fungal spores in the air (1). Symptoms
Ever wonder what kind of parasites are in your water, or how they can enter in to your body to make you very sick? Well it is most definite that no on want to get sick. The information found in this paper was collected over the past month, either by going to the library or by accessing information off the Internet at home, almost every night. The point that will be given to you is a little in information about the infectious disease called Schistosomiasis. The points the main points will be the causative agents, symptoms, hosts, methods of transmission and history of the disease. So lets see what Schistosomiasis is.
In 1972, R.I.S.E, a terrorist group was found to be guilty for contaminating Chicago’s water supply. The alleged plot to poison water was led by Steve Pera and Allan Schwander. The then commissioner of the Chicago’s water and sewage commission regarded the attack as a scheme of harebrained people and could not have worked. Typhoid germs were introduced to the drinking water supply by two college students, Pera and Schwander. However, the commissioner said that any plan to contaminate water will fail because of the chlorine being continuously pumped to water supplies every day. With that, Typhoid bacteria won’t be able to survive the said procedure. Apart from Chlorine, the water filtration plants are guarded 24/7 so plans of any attack won’t be feasible. The two students were held in Cook County Jail and had a bond of $250,000 each. Pera and Schwander were 18 and 19 years old, respectively, during the said attack. According to investigations, RISE, the terrorist group formed by the two suspects, were created to create the basis of the newly formed master race. The bacterial culture was prepared by Pera in Mayfair City College’s laboratory where deadly microorganisms are abundant. In fact, Pera used to work as a volunteer in St. Lukes Hospital but was terminated because of his attempt to acquire unauthorized chemicals (The Ledger, 1972).
concentrations increase (Bricker et al., 1999). The effects of TP and TN in an estuary system can
This disease may be on the brink of being eradicated entirely but that doesn’t stop it from being one of the grossest things that anyone has ever seen. The parasite enters the body via unsafe drinking water. When people drink water infected with water fleas that have have been hosting the larvae of the parasite. There are no symptoms, to begin with, but about one year later, blisters on the feet or legs begin to develop and then the adult fully developed worm crawls out of the host body over a period of a few weeks. It’s said that the pain is intense and can incapacitate a person for weeks at a time. The pain can also continue for months after the infection. The parasite needs to infect a person at least once a year in order to continue. There were an estimated 3.5 million cases in 1986 but the disease has been greatly reduced over time and only 22 cases were reported in 2015. This disease will probably be the first parasitic disease to be completely eradicated in humans.
Some are found specifically in the human body and some are found in the environment and will eventually enter the human body. Coccidioides immitis and Coccidioides posadasii are two pathogens that are found in the environment and will eventually enter the human body. Both pathogens are found in the southern United States, Mexico, and Central and South America (Fungal Infections, 8). Coccidioides immitis is found in the lower, arid zone of the United States; specifically, the southwestern states like Arizona, southern California-primarily the San Joaquin Valley, and New Mexico, as well as in Central and South America (Lewis et al, 1). Coccidioides immitis is also found in the soil and is classified as an ascomycete (Lewis et al, 2). Coccidioides posadasii is found in the more central southern United States; specifically, Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico, as well as Mexico, Central America, and South America (Lewis et al, 2). Coccidioides posadasii is also found in soil and classified as an ascomycete (Lewis et al, 2). Once the pathogens have grown to a point of maturity, they can infect the host. Both Coccidioides immitis and Coccidioides posadasii infect humans primarily; these pathogens will also infect other mammals such as cattle and dogs (Kellner et al, 111). Infection of the host can cause many issues in large cattle populations as the cattle are eating and breathing the same things; there is really no way to stop the
...nvironmental Microbiology. New York: A John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 1992. pp. 125?156. Accessed December 2, 2013.
Roffey, R., et al. "Biological weapons and bioterrorism preparedness: importance of public‐health awareness and international cooperation." Clinical microbiology and infection 8.8 (2002): 522-528.
When trying to think of a positive writing experience I have had in my lifetime, particularly as a small child, I could not think of any. So I began to ask myself why is it that I do not like writing, what happened in my life for me to have such animosity towards the act. I was finally able to think of an event and realized that it had all begun in the 3rd grade. One day, as a punishment for talking during class, I was kept inside during recess and was forced to write Wise Old Owls until my hands began to cramp. For 45 minutes, I was only allowed to write the same old phrase over and over again; “The wise old owl sat on an oak, the more he heard, the less he spoke, the less he spoke the more he heard, why can’t I be like that wise old bird”. To this day I can still remember that little rhyme and to this day I can remember that same feeling I felt as a elementary school student. From that point on I have always had an aversion for writing, it always seemed like a punishment. I still do not understand how people can journal. I don’t see how someone can sit down and write an entry or a novel just for the hell of it. It seems unnatural to me, but I guess that all of these feelings are just because I see writing as a punishment, an
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Writing is a way in which a person can express their thoughts and ideas through the use of words. Everybody has their own writing styles. Some may consider theirs as inspirational while others think of it to be bad. Writing requires a lot of patience and time. In my case, writing has never been my favorite thing to do. I am no Shakespeare and I never will be, writing has always made me feel uncomfortable. In the past, I had always considered writing to be one of the most difficult tasks. I often wrote about topics that were not of my interest. I rarely did any writing out of school or for leisure as most people do. I only wrote because the teacher asked us to. Writing has always been forced onto me. Even though my writing isn't that great, I've felt that I've never been given the freedom to express my voice. Academic writing has always made me anxious. And, anxiety had resulted in my procrastination. Even though I consider writing to be one of the toughest tasks, I've felt that giving myself enough time to think allows me to do better. Silence helps me think beyond horizons. However, the fear of impressing someone, the anxiety and frustration is what makes me a developing writer.
Cyclosporiasis is an intestinal infection that affects the bowels. People can become infected by consuming water or food contaminated with the parasite. It takes around seven days to begin showing symptoms, like nausea and diarrhea. People living or traveling in countries with tropical or subtropical regions of the world may be at greater risk of contracting the disease. Parasitologist, Dr. Ashford, discovered three cases in Papua New Guinea. He published a book and it went unnoticed for about ten years until the first documented outbreak in the United States in 1990. The finished morphology was completed in 1994 and the species name Cyclospora cayetanensis came from the research university Cayetano Heredia University
Infections from Toxoplasma gondii are found in many human beings and animals used as a food source. All mammals and birds that are eaten by humans can function as intermediate hosts for T. gondii and therefore could potentially be the area of infection for humans. Many of the major sources of foodborne transmission to humans come from undercooked meat, mainly pork, wild game, and lamb containing tissue cysts. Other sources of T. gondii come from soil that has been contaminated with cat feces on raw fruits, vegetables and in water that contains the oocysts. There has been an increased interest from consumers
I start out my life’s journey looking for people to infect by swimming through pools of water throughout the world. The best countries are third world countries where people are underdeveloped and vulnerable. For extended periods of time, I am often without a host, waiting for an unsuspecting, naive human to take a sip of what they think is thirst quenching liquid. In reality, the liquid is their worst nightmare. No matter the place- pools, spas, or rivers- I am there, and the moment someone opens their mouth, I shall capture the flag of their