Introduction
Shale rock, is a sedimentary rock composed of mixture flakes of clay and silt sized other mineral. Process of shale formation is called compaction. Shale oil, is an unconventional oil.it is produced by various processes like thermal dissolution, hydrogenation etc. Shale gas, is natural gas that is extracted from shale formations. China is estimated to have the world's largest shale gas reserves.
Clustering: Cluster placement should be matched to reservoir quality
Single clustering: gas production is reduced significantly when the cluster spacing is single the width growth of fracture is strongly inhibited due to mechanical interaction
Multiple clustering: multiple cluster perforation are typically used to create multiple fractures in any single stage placing these perforation is critical issue cause the number of perforation cluster to be used and the space between them significantly impact how effective the fracture can be created in the formation
Production using perforation cluster:
Perforation cluster productivity is determined by running production logs into horizontal wells. If multiple fluid phases are present then more sophisticated PLs are required that can differentiate the segregated fluids flowing in the well. Fiber Optic systems can also be deployed and monitored for extended periods of time to see how production can change along the lateral with time. Productivity from each perforation cluster can also be modeled using reservoir simulators. This requires knowledge of the petro physical properties of the shale and also the effectiveness of the completion. The latter can be modeled via hydraulic fracturing simulators.
Multi-stage hydraulic fracture
In this technique the shale rock is fractured by pressuri...
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... 60 years is 41.7% for Case 3 and for Case 4 it is found to be 38.9%.
Fig. 3 Comparison of Case 3 and Case 4.
Fig. 3 Explanation:
In the above graph it can be seen that the Y-axis is over the gas production rate and is taken in Mscf/D units. On the X-axis we take the time, and the unit or scale taken is by days. The dotted line represent the gas-production rate and the non-breaking line denotes the cumulative gas production. The Purple line denotes the Case 3 and Blue line denotes the Case 4.
Conclusion
By the following statistics we can derive the following conclusion that increasing the number of perforation clusters in one stage does not necessarily increase the initial gas rate and the cumulative gas production because the width growth of center and sub-center fractures is inhibited under certain fracture spacing and geo-mechanical properties of the reservoir.
As the primary fracture line develops, the body of calcaneum displaces laterally and proximally which impacts the lateral portion of the posterior facet against the posterior lateral edge of talus leading to shearing off of the lateral wall and development of posterior secondary fracture line.
...the more stable there is. However, the fracture toughness decreases if the phase is too stable. While tetragonal phase transform to monoclinic, the mechanical properties decrease at the same time but fracture toughness will increase.
There are a number of points at which Fox talks about how fracture fluid contains a mix of over 596 chemicals and how they are undisclosed because they are considered proprietary. Not only do individual states mandate the full public disclosure of fluid additives, but the federal government does as well, and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires that this information be kept at all well sites (Energy In Depth). Since then, it has been proven that fracture fluid is comprised almost entirely of water and sand, and typically containing less than one percent of an average of 12 components, most of which can be found around the house. Additionally, oil and gas is not the only use of fracturing, as it has also been used to access sources of water and geothermal
Gas in shale formations are“low in permeability,” making it very tedious to extract, but with the increase in technological knowledge in fracking and horizontally drilling into shale beds, the vast reserves of natural gas resource could be extracted (4). Fracking is a large industrial operation that boost the “productivity of a oil or gas well” (5). It is a process by which, under very high pressure, a mixture of water, chemicals, and sand, are pumped into shale formations that causes fractures in the rocks to open wider or create new fractures that would allow otherwise trapped oil and gas to flow into the wells (6).
For this study ten participants were chosen to complete the study. For this particular study, the participants had to be the eldest and youngest child from the same family. They both also had to be raised in the same household. The pairs were picked at random and then asked to complete the test. There were three males tested and seven females tested.
Shale gas is a kind of unconventional nature gas, which is trapped or gathered in the dark shale or carbon rock. The rock layer has low permeability and low porosity, which means that the best way to get this recourse is fracturing to enhance connectivity and porosity. The shale gas reservoirs are mainly located in North America, Central Asia, China, Latin America, Middle East, North Africa and Russia and other countries and regions. The United State and Canada are only two countries, which have significant shale gas production.
The process of fracking is very simple. Around 800 gallons of water is used as the base of what is called fracking fluid. Along with this, sand and 600 toxic chemicals are used to create the fluid. The fluid is then transported from a manufacturing plant to the site. It is then injected at high pressures into the ground through dilled pipelines. The fluid contains chemicals that keep these pipes from rusting over time. The fluid then reaches a well where it causes the nearby shale rock to fracture. This releases any trapped fuel in the rocks. Gravity and pressure is then used to force the fluid out of the pipes back to the surface. The fluid is then taken and left it large holes to evaporate. This causes release of chemicals and also leakage into ground water (Dangers of Fracking).
Hydraulic fracturing, which is the process of natural gas extraction, has been in debate for the past few years. It was first introduced back in the late 1900s, as a beneficial way to obtain clean fuel, and it also benefitted the economy by providing employment for many. However, recent studies have shown that hydraulic fracturing is causin...
Fracking has become a highly controversial and publicized topic due to rising concerns and growing analysis into the mutual benefits of hydraulic fracturing to retrieve natural gas and oil reserves. With concerns of water pollution, mismanagement of toxic waste and irreversible
Around the world, countries are dependent on oil and more often than not, foreign oil. The U.S. is at a time where they believe buying foreign oil supports terrorism and hurts our economy. Shale formations deep underground that spread all over the U.S. have been found to contain natural gas. This includes the Marcellus Shale formation and the Utica Shale formation, which can be found all throughout New York State and down the East Coast (Hydro-Fracking pg.1). To get at this abundance of gas underground, hydraulic fracturing was invented, but this new method of gas extraction safe for the environment and for the people around it?
In the last decade the extraction of natural gas from underground reservoirs has increased. Natural gas supplies 24% of the United States energy demand and is only expected to grow. Shale gas is natural gas that is found trapped in shale. Shale is sedimentary rocks that consist of clay minerals that have low permeability. Natural gas that is found in shale is buried in fractures below ground and must be extracted by hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking [10]. One of the most recognized sites for the extraction of natural gas by fracking has been at the Barnett shale in the last decade. The Barnett shale is a region that extends west of Fort Worth, Texas to the Permian Basin and has been known to extend as far south into Mexico. The Barnett shale is a complex system of fractures in which the region has seen new developments in fracking to extract the natural gas from the ground [11].
... quantity of helium supplied has also decreased due to refinery closures and privatization which this is a determinant of supply known as “decreasing number of sellers”, which will cause a rise in the prices of helium. As the number of sellers in this particular market decreases, our supply of helium decreases as well shifting the supply curve. Also, we have a change in a non-price determinant of supply such as the cost of factor production, which equals to a change in supply. This change in supply shifts the supply curve to the left because helium is becoming more difficult to find and the cost of natural resources has increased causing a decrease in the helium supply.
,n.d. web. 21 May 2014 Petroleum engineering. Encyclopedia Britannica. N.P., n.d. Web.
Morphological characterization was carried out via SEM analysis. The micrographs of fractured surfaces of samples P-0.1D-1PO are represented in Figure 2. Figures 2 (a) and 2 (c) are related to the SEM images while figures 2 (b) and 2 (d) are the element mapping images. Moreover, figures 2 (a) and (b) demonstrate the samples before the crosslinking process and figures 2 (c) and (d) are attributed to the samples after the
Due to the fact that rocks are composed of high intensity of elastic and brittle material, they therefore store considerable amount of strain energy that results from elasticity, during the action of plate tectonic. The brittleness leads to development of concurrent cracks on the rocks as a result of plate’s action.