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renal physiology
renal physiology
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The neural control of the kidneys is through the sympathetic nervous system, efferent renal sympathetic nerves innervation and neuroeffector junctions have been identified along the renal vasculature, the tubules, the granular cells of juxtaglomerular apparatus (Kate etal, 2004; Edward etal, 2011). The action of sympathetic system is via the release the norepinephrine at sympathetic nerve terminals into the interstitial space. A moderately high levels of nerve stimulation has more effect on efferent arteriole than afferent thereby the RBF fall more than the GFR in consistent with efferent arteriolar constriction, however at maximal nerve stimulation afferent vasoconstriction predominates and leads to drastic reductions in both RBF and GFR (DiBona and Kopp, 1997; Edward etal, 2011). Unlike many other organs the kidneys have a low resting sympathetic tone, meaning that a decrease in sympathetic nervous system cannot effectively decrease the resistance. The main aim of sympathetic nervous system is to compensate for a fall in blood pressure or to prepare the body for the fight or flight response. Studies have investigated sympathepatic activity in relation to Protein resistriction by measuring norepinephrine (NE) turnover in heart and interscapular brown adipose tissue (IBAT) and reported an increase in sympathepatic activity (Laryssa etal, 1986; Martins etal, 2011 ), but since the Resting Sympathetic Activity has a very minimal effect on renal function any influence on it by dietary protein/amino acid will have little or no effect on kidney function.
Sympathetic tone was augmented in malnourished compared with control rats (131 ± 17 vs 41 ± 11 b.p.m., respectively), whereas parasympathetic tone was reduced in malnourished com...
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...prevented the rise in both GFR and RPF. Same study also examine whether the amino acid -induced hyperfiltration was due to dopamine release from renal nerves or enhanced renal tubule dopamine synthesis, they administered amino acid to rats in which the left kidney had been chronically denervated while the right kidney remained intact. It was observed that the infusion of amino acid led to significant increments in GFR and RPF only in the intact control kidney, whereas GFR and RPF remained unaltered in the denervated kidney.
Nitric oxide (NO) is another paracrine factor that act in kidney to modulate neurotransmission activity. It is produced via the action of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) enzymes this exist in three isoforms; neuronal (nNOS, NOSI), inducible (iNOS, NOSII), and endothelial (eNOS, NOSIII) and all are expressed within the kidney (Edward etal, 2011).
The kidneys are located in the posterior section of the retroperitoneal cavity and are small, dark red kidney-bean shaped organs in the lower part of the rib cage (Marieb, The Urinary System, 2015). They are undervalued organs considering how essential they are for the body’s ability to maintain homeostasis. The kidneys filter about 120-150 quarts of blood to produce about 1-2 quarts of urine each day (NIH, 2014). Blood initially enters the kidneys through the renal artery. It then flows into the segmental artery before moving into the interlobar artery. From the interlobar artery the filtrate enters the arcuate artery before branching into the cortical radiate artery, which feeds into the afferent arteriole, before passing into the glomerulus where it begins to filter out waste. The filtered waste is then collected by renal tubule. The tubules drain to collecting ducts and all of these components together makes up a small unit called a nephron. Each kidney has over a million nephrons (Marieb, Blood Supply/ Nephrons, 2015). They filter out wastes that run through different body systems via blood; the majority of that waste is nitrogenous wastes, toxins, excess fluids, electrolytes, and drugs. These waste products are eliminated as urine. While waste are removed vital enzymes, hormones, and water are returned
When a receptor is activated and the stimulus is taken to the hypothalamus and then relayed out to the “limbic system and neocortical areas…impulses stimulate the neuroendocrine and autonomic nervous system,” which can cause an array of issues if not careful and if the stress signal is prolonged. (3)
(5) NIH Publication No. 03–4241. Your Kidneys and How They Work. National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse, 2003. http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/yourkidneys/
Widmaier, E.P., Raff, H. and Strang, K.T. (2008) Vander's Human Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function.11th ed. New York: McGraw-
Young, J. B.; Landsberg, L. Catecholamines and the Adrenal Medulla. In: Wilson, J. D.; Foster, D. W.; Kronenberg, H. M.; Larsen, P. R. eds. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1998:665-728
The kidneys play a vital role in the control of blood pressure. They do this by controlling the sodium retention and excretion, which in turn controls blood volume and thus blood pressure. In one study, the kidneys of hypertensive rats were exchanged with other rats and it was found that the hypertension shifted to the new rat that received the hypertensive kidney (Coffman, 2011). This shows the importance of the kidney in hypertensive patients.
Many scientific have concluded that neurotransmitter have an important role in the production of hormones. Some researchers have found that patient with anorexia nervosa also have abnormal levels of certain neurotransmitter. Lower levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin are connected to bulimia, depression and food disorders; lower levels of nor epinephrine was found on anorexic patients. It is possible that abnormal levels of the nor epinephrine neurotransmitter could cause weight loss on anorexic patients. These are some examples that support the scientific researches. (Encyclopedia of Obesity and Eating disorders,
One of the most common sensations in all humans is that of stress. This may be induced by everything from more serious life-or-death situations, to more mundane concern over deadlines or relationships. The body has a somewhat graded response to these events depending on their severity, but its response, regardless of severity, is rooted in the same neuroendocrine response of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA Axis). This response is characterized by the feedback interactions and influencing of three of the bodies endocrine glands: the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the adrenal glands (1). In response to stress, the hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), which travels through the hypophyseal portal system
The second aspect of this presentation was the 5-HT Receptor Antagonist. These antagonists are capable of decreasing the effect of NPY levels within the body. One antagonist, in particular, was shown to have a great effect on NPY effect, known as DOI. It was found that DOI blocks NYP responses inside the brain. One specific part of DOI was signaled out as being responsible for the blockage of NPY, known as 2A. Even though the DOI is able to decrease the sense of hunger, it is not used in humans because it causes very bad after effects, especially great nausea.
Kidney Function Introduction and definition of terms: The kidneys are the main organs in the urinary system. They filter waste products out of blood from the renal artery. These are then excreted. Useful solutes are reabsorbed into the blood. They also have a major homeostatic role in the body, and help to control the water content (osmoregulation) and pH of the blood.
→Two major factors directly affect the rate of K+ secretion: aldosterone and NaCl delivery to the ASDN(aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron) and due to defects and increasing aldosterone secretions, delivery of Na+ downstream to the ASDN increases and subsequently so does K+ (Warnock,
... that sodium ingestion (especially high contents) passes through extracellular compartments including the vascular system before getting eliminated by the kidneys. An acute increase of plasma sodium concentration can alter the mechanical properties of vascular endothelium, as long as aldosterone is present. Aldosterone not only plays a major role in adjusting sodium and potassium transport in kidneys but also on the cardiovascular system. Sodium accumulates in extracellular space when the kidneys cannot adequately adjust salt excretion to salt uptake and/or when the concentration of aldosterone is raised, leading to an increase in plasma sodium concentration. An important finding in these studies was the observed effects of amiloride, which acted to block sodium channels and prevented an increase in stiffness by reversing the increasing in cell volume and pressure.
These wastes are derived from the liquid and food that the individual had consumed. In cases of compromised kidney function, the kidneys are no longer able to remove or filter wastes in the normal way. This means that wastes are left to accumulate in the bloodstream. When this scenario takes hold, it can negatively impact the patient 's electrolytes, therefore, positive action has to be taken to optimize the situation. When patients follow a renal diet it can help to slow down the advancement of total kidney failure, and ameliorate kidney function. Along with chloride and potassium, sodium represents one of the body 's main three electrolytes. The latter manipulate the fluids with enter and leave the body’s cells and tissues. Therefore, patients with renal disease must monitor their intake of electrolytes. Keeping a daily food dairy is essential (Nephcure), and will be of great benefit to the dietitian who can pinpoint certain details.
The autonomic nervous systems endure sympathetic activation. Adrenaline coming from the suprarenal medulla embraces the mechanism. The body heart rate and contracting muscle fibers expanded from supporting the cardiac output. The constriction of blood vessels and blood pressure increases the outer boundaries causing blood pressure to rise, moving in direction of the main organs inside the body. Venoconstriction raises the chance of the return of the venous and also causing additional blood from the venous to the process of movement of blood through the body. The glands that produce endocrine secretion then spread through ADH, peptide constricted blood vessels and hormones produced by adrenal glands. These all interact with each other increasing the volume of blood by the acts of less fluid wreckage by the kidney. (Book and
For some time researchers have focused mainly on the sympathetic nervous system and have neglected the Autonomic nervous system. Being that the Autonomic nervous system is that in which is comprised of the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enterie nervous system one would assume more information would be allotted to this important function of the body. Though the Autonomic nervous system does not provide neural control of the skeletal muscle, it in its own right, it still is very important to the body and should be treated as such through dedicated research. In this paper we will dissect the many functions of the Autonomic nervous system in hopes to lend a better understanding to its importance. This paper will discuss the Autonomic nervous