Neurotransmitters are chemicals; signals are transmitted from neuron to the target cell via a synapse through neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are associated in the synaptic vesicles congregated in the presynaptic membrane and are released in the synaptic cleft, In the synaptic cleft they attach to the receptors in the postsynaptic membrane.(1)Monoamine transporters are proteins which are found on nerve terminals of noradrenegenic,serotonergic and dopaminergic neurons. They are also part of sodium dependent transporters and have a key role in terminating the released neurotransmitters action in the synaptic cleft. In addition Transporter proteins are important in assimilating monoaminergic innervations as well as being the main target molecules for numerous amount of antidepressive drugs and substances for abuse. Monoamine transporters consists vesicular monoamine transporters (VMAT) and plasma membrane. Monoamine is carried in to the vesicles by the latter non-selectively and dopamine, nor adrenaline and serotonin is transported into vesicles by Na+/Cl- and selectively former. Monoamine transportation into the cytoplasm is inhibited when antiepileptic drugs for instance SSRI is attached to nor adrenaline transport (NET) or Dopamine transporter (DAT) and serotonin transport (SERT). Thus the monoamine level increases in the synaptic cleft. Monoamine transporters are the site for drug action,(2)Affective disease such as schizophrenia or Parkinson’s disease may be involved due to functional changes in the transporters.
The neurotransmitter transporters are proven to be most important targets for CNS drug discovery,(3)mainly for antidepressant drugs. Antidepressants act as a inhibitors of monoamine transporters. Serotonin se...
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...ion and the evidence proved in this study was due to low concentration of homovanillic acid which is a metabolite of dopamine(6).Dopamine agonists such as ropinirole,bromocriptine shows antidepressant characteristics.Amineptine is a TCA derivative which also blocks the reuptake of dopamine and exhibit activity of noradrenergic and serotonergic.Most of the existing antidepressants seem to exhibit a similar efficacy in the general treatment of depression, however, antidepressants that have different profiles of action may target particular symptoms within the depressive syndrome more effectively. In such cases, the treatment provided could be accurately focused towards the predominant or driving symptomatology for a specific patient. Studies have shown that this method of treatment has the potential of improving the rate of response and remission.(6)
If these transporters are blocked, dopamine is unable to leave the synaptic cleft and becomes trapped. This prolonged presence of dopamine in the cleft causes the emotional and physical effects to become long term. Having these affects long term will cause the patient to become tolerant to Adderall. Tolerance is dangerous because a higher dosage will be needed in order for the effects to be felt. This is also dangerous for addiction because by having these effects long term, a person will get use to feeling a certain way and they will believe that they cannot function without taking Adderall.
Introduction: For my research project I would like to explore the effectiveness of antidepressant drugs. Antidepressant drugs are used are used to treat major depression and other conditions, some of which include anxiety, obsessive compulsive disorder, chronic pain and other disorders. Around the world antidepressants are used to cure these types of mental illnesses. It is argued by both medical professionals and other people whether or not they believe that antidepressants work. According to Mayo Clinic one in ten Americans take an antidepressant. Today, antidepressants have became the most common way around the world to treat major depression
The Role of Dopamine Receptors in Schizophrenia. Retrieved March 3, 2005, From Stanford University, Chemistry department web site, http://www.chem.csustan.edu/chem44x0/SJBR/Mann.htm Naheed, M., & Green, B. (2000). Focus on Clozapine. Retrieved February 7, 2005. From http://www.priory.com/focus14.htm Waddinton, J.L., & Buckley, P.F. (1996).
Treating depressive and bipolar disorders with antidepressants remains a popular option in clinical practice. Most clinicians choose the drug or class of drugs, usually selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, SSRI's, that is most effective and best tolerated with fewer severe side effects. These drugs are beneficial because they specifically target serotonin-based areas of the brain without affecting other neurotransmitter systems. SSRI's largely replaced tricyclic antidepressants which work by blocking the absorption (reuptake) of the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine, thereby increasing the levels of these two neurotransmitters in the brain. Tricyclic antidepressants present severe side effects and thus are usually only used when other treatments have failed. If SSRI's or tricyclics are not effective Monoamine oxidase inhibitors may be prescribed. MAOI's, enhance tyramine to increase norepinephrine and serotonin. While taking MAOI's you must abstain from foods and alcohol that contain tyramine such as, yogurt, aged cheese, and substances such as cold medications. This is because a potential toxic reaction could occur. Additionally, other antidepressants may be utilized such as Wellbutrin (bupropion) an NDRI-
There has been an increase in the Misuse and Abuse of prescription drugs to treat Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). the number of children on medication for ADHD has grown from 600,000 in 1990 to 3.5 million in 2013 according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. But although there is an over-medication of ADHD drugs, there is actually and under-medication since not all the right people are getting medicated. Many individuals lack insurance or are insured with health plans that do not cover the outpatient prescription drugs they need and cannot afford.10 Therefore, Individuals covered by various health plans and programs, and those who have no prescription drug coverage, pay significantly different prices for the same medications. As the demand for ADHD drugs grows, higher prescribing rates and increasing drug prices result, which creates problems for these number of Americans who cannot afford the treatment they require.
(6) "Dopamine, Glutamate, and the Neurochemical Circuitry of Schizophrenia" From Department of Psychiatry Homepage (University of Michigan)
Approximately 5% of the United States' population experiences a depressive episode that requires psychopharmacological treatment; in any one year, 10-12 million Americans are affected by depression, with the condition twice as common in females than in males. It has been estimated that 15% of patients hospitalized for depression will commit suicide. These figures are incredible, so finding the root of the problem when it comes to depression is extremely important. "Alterations in serotonin metabolism may be an important factor in the etiology and treatment of depression." (7).
Neurotransmitters can also produce their effects by modulating the production of other signal-transducing molecules ("second messengers"messengers") in the post-synaptic cells (Cooper, Bloom and Roth 1996). Nine compounds -- belonging to three chemical families -- are generally believed to function as neurotransmitters somewhere in the central nervous system (CNS) or periphery. In addition, certain other body chemicals, for example adenosine, histamine, enkephalins, endorphins, and epinephrine, have neurotransmitter-like properties, and many additional true neurotransmitters may await discovery.
The depletion of the levels of serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine in the central nervous system is a theory used to explain depression, called the monoamine hypothesis of depression (Delgado, P. L., 2000). This came about with the early development
Major Depressive Disorder, which is also referred to as Clinical Depression, is a disorder caused when low serotonin levels, that suppress pain perception and are often found in the pineal gland at the center of the brain, promote low levels of norepinephrine, a monoamine neurotransmitter that controls cognitive ability. This disabling disorder interferes with a person’s daily life as it prevents one from performing normal functions, such as eating, sleeping, interacting, or enjoying once pleasurable activities. According to the National Institute of Mental Health, the common symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder are continued feelings of anxiety, worthlessne...
Antidepressant are a form of pharmacotherapy treatment developed to treat the symptoms of major depression. Antidepressants are used for many other types of conditions including anxiety disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder, dysthymia, eating disorders, sleeping disorders, and substance abuse, pain syndromes, gastrointestional disorders. Antidepressants usually require several weeks to notice significant effects. There are no antidepressants or any medication that is completely free of adverse effects. This article explains that the adverse effects of antidepressant can decrease compliance and slow down the rate of recovery. It is important for one to take note of potential side-effects before choosing the best antidepressant to suit their personalized needs. Statistics show that about 28 percent of patients sto...
Depression is a mental illness, which affects millions of Americans each year. Currently there are many prescription drugs, called anti-depressants that have been proven to successfully treat it. The causes of depression are somewhat of a medical enigma, however, it is known that depression is associated with a change in the brains chemistry involving the function of neurotransmitters (Reichert). This chemical change occurs in healthy brain’s, which experience sadness, but ends after the unpleasant stimulus is removed. In people suffering from depression this chemical change does not correspond to any particular stimulus. Symptoms of depression are often incapacitating and include severe and extended sadness, feelings of worthlessness, feelings of emptiness, irritability and anxiety (Reichert, Spake).
The patient still suffers from anxiety and has been taking the Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor - Fluoxetine 20mg (BNF 2014: 251-254) once daily since his last visit and the patient reports very low motivation due to a recent separation a...
Drug therapies rely on medication for the treatment of mental disorders. Therapeutic drugs for psychological problems fall into three major groups, anti-anxiety drugs, antipsychotic drugs and antidepressants. The biomedical approach to treatment is based on the assumption that if a mental problem is caused by biological malfunctioning, the cure is to restore the biological system with drugs. For example, the serotonin hypothesis of depression suggests that depression is linked to low levels of the neurotransmitter, serotonin. Antidepressant treatment should therefore aim to regulate serotonin levels.
Manj et al (2001) concluded from his research that neurotoxic effects which are poisonous substances affecting the nervous system (medical dictionary), can cause damage or can kill the ‘hippocampal’ cells located in the brain and thus can lead to the rise of many depressive symptoms in individuals. Similarly the research by Manj (2001) suggested that genetic factors could lead to alterations in the balance of neurotoxic and neuroprotective responses this is protecting nerve cells against damage, degeneration or impairment of function, to stress and therefore can lead to and encourage depressive symptoms in individuals. Manj (2001) did conclude that antidepressants were effective in enhancing the neuroprotective effects and so could be used as an effective method for treatment of