Missing Figures
INERTIAL CONFINEMENT FUSION
1. Introduction / Beginnings
In the 1940s during the development of nuclear explosives, the
inertial confinement approach to fusion was born. Weapons
researchers determined that by use of high energy sources, such as the
fission reaction, light nuclei could be fused, thus creating intense fusion
energy. Scientists in the controlled fusion camp also realized that tight
compression of fuel pellets could increase the fusion reaction rate
which is proportional to fuel density. (Robert A. Gross, Fusion
Energy, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 295)
Scientists were, at this stage, trying to discover a mechanism which
could compress a light-nucleus fuel. The invention of high power lasers
encouraged the inertial-confinement camp. The radiation from the
laser heats a fuel pellet, and as the plasma from the pellet rapidly expands,
a momentum reaction sends compressive waves inward,
converging on the pellet's core. The energy in the core causes the ignition
of the pellet. The common desire is to obtain a thermonuclear
energy yield that exceeds the energy which is required
to heat and compress the solid before the pellet explodes;
hence the name inertial confinement. Some of the early research in this
subject was done by Nuckolls and Kidder of the Livermore Laboratory,
and Bosov and Krokhin of the Kurchatov Institute in the
USSR. (Gross, 295)
Since these great efforts, the scientific community has considered
inertial-confinement fusion to be the top alternate method for controlled
thermonuclear fusion. The most probable containment, of
course, is magnetic confinement fusion. Tokamak Fusion Test
Reactor (TFTR) in Princeton, New Jersey is argueably the premier
ma...
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...died; however, the heavy-ion accelerators show much promise in its
short time of consideration. Laser light coupling and laser efficiencies have
been a problem for laser-driven designs. Ion-driven devices
have problems of their own, particularly in focusing to the required power
density. (Dean, 75) The HYBALL-II project as well as other ICF
projects today have easily surpassed the yields of the early ICF
reactors (SOLASE). In the big picture, however, one should keep in mind
that magnetic-confinement devices show much more promise at
this point.
Works Cited
Dean, Stephen O., (ed.). Prospects for Fusion Power. New York: Pergamon
Press, 1981.
Gross, Robert A. Fusion Energy. New York: John Wiley and Sons,
1984.
Velarde, Guillermo, et. al, (ed.). Nuclear Fusion by Inertial Confinement:
A Comprehensive Treatise. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1993.
According to Bathe nuclear fusion reactions are thermonuclear reactions in which energy is released when two hydrogen nuclei combine to form helium nucleus.
Introduction Fusion centers are easily described by their names. They are a collaboration between several different agencies that combine to form one united Criminal Justice front against terrorism. All agencies, such as the FBI, Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and local police, work together to analyze and gather potential information on threats and possible terrorist attacks against the United States. They also serve as a sort of hub to pass out information needed to other agencies. The creation of Fusion Centers helps make local law enforcement more capable in responding to and fighting terror threats.
Albert Einstein predicted that mass could be converted into energy early in the century and was confirmed experimentally by John D. Cockcroft and Ernest Walton in 1932. In 1939, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered that neutrons striking the element uranium caused the atoms to split apart. Physicists found out that among the pieces of a split atom were newly produced neutrons. These might encounter other uranium nuclei, caused them to split, and start a chain reaction. If the chain reaction were limited to a moderate pace, a new source of energy could be the result. The chain reaction could release energy rapidly and with explosive force.
The Trinity Project was a project conducted to test the effects of a nuclear weapon. The Trinity nuclear device was detonated on a 100-foot tower on the Alamogordo Bombing Range in south-central New Mexico at 0530 hours on 16 July 1945. (Rohrer, 1995-2003). This project was organized by the Manhattan Engineer District (MED). This organization worked diligently planning and coordinating all of the logistics for the groundbreaking event. From 1945-1946 over 1000 personnel either worked or visited the test site. The United States was trying to gain nuclear proliferation throughout the world so this project was necessary for our enemies to see the devastation of a nuclear blast.
Early Soviet nuclear physics in the 1920s and 1930s enjoyed success in many fields. David Holloway states, “In spite of the difficulties it faced, Soviet nuclear physics reached a high standard in the 1930s.” 1 Physicists such as Abram Ioffe, who studied under Röntgen, Igor Kurchatov, Kirill Sinel’nikov, and others were prominent and capable scientists who advocated and build many of the institutions in the new Soviet Union to support scientific research. Ioffe’s Physicotechnical Institute was one of these institutes. The Soviets did not actually lack from talented and intelligent physicists in the early years of scientific research...
In 1949, the U.S. was shocked when the U.S.S.R. was able to successfully reproduce a nuclear missile, when, the U.S. had been carefully guarding the plans for the missiles. The missiles continued to improve when, in January of 1950 a German theoretical physicist named Klaus...
the h-bomb was was made in 1951. Its also called the hydrogen bomb. the united states detonate the first thermonuclear weapon. the hydrogen bomb on eniwetok atoll in the pacific. the test gave the united states a short lived advantage in the nuclear arms race with the soviet union. following the successful soviet detonation of an atomic device in september 1949 the united states accelerated its program to develop the next stage in atomic weaponry.popularly know as the hydrogen bomb this new weapon was approximately 1000 times more powerful than conventional nuclear devices. opponents of development of the hydrogen bomb included j. robert oppenheimer. one of the fathers of the atomic bomb. He and others argued that little would be accomplished except the speeding of the arms race, since it assumed that the soviets would quickly follow suits. the opponents were
As of now, 80% of global energy is provided by fossil fuels. Wind and solar energy sources are unlikely to completely replace fossil fuels in the coming decades due to infrastructure problems. A drop in global energy provided by oil starting sometime between 2012 and 2014 (Chris) is also expected. As a result of these circumstances more research must be done in other forms of energy generation in order to keep with energy demand as countries industrialize and populations grow. Despite claims that nuclear fusion will not be practically realized, research into nuclear fusion should be increased as it is not harmful to the environment, has nearly limitless fuel, and is inherently safe. Fusion power produces no greenhouse gasses and no long-lived radioactive products, making it a very clean energy source. According to the article “Safety and Environment,” “Fusion power does not produce any greenhouse gasses (GHGs) or other atmospheric pollutants during operation.” It has become an increasing desire for things, such as cars and companies, to become environmentally friendly or “green.” The fact that fusion power would generate no greenhouse gasses inherently is a big plus. Furthermore, according to the same article, “SEAFP concluded that fusion has very good inherent safety qualities, among which... no production of long-lived, highly radiotoxic products.” The radiotoxic products produced by nuclear fission pose a large environmental problem due to storage required. Fusion is much more environmentally friendly than fission because it lacks these products.
Fusion centers were created under President George W. Bush after the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center in New York on September 11, 2001. The objective of the fusion centers was to form a collaborative partnership between varied representatives of the local, state, and federal government along with participants of diverse disciplines according to Arena & Arrigo (2005).The mission of the members was to gather, analyze, and share critical information relating to terrorist threat that came into the fusion centers ( Carter, 2004). The centers informed law enforcement agencies of potential terrorist threats, which could significantly impact infrastructures around the world states Johnson & Dorn (2008). Currently,
It was Italian-born physicist and Nobel winner Enrico Fermi, and his colleagues at the University of Chicago who were responsible for this success (“Nuclear”).
The execution of fusion centers is to serve as a pivotal point within all state and local agencies to conduct, analysis, gather and share vital information pertaining to any threats pose against the United States. This important information is also shared between the federal government, local, state, tribal and public and private sectors. These centers are usually located in metropolitan areas all over the county.
In the early 1900’s, scientists learned that they had the ability to produce nuclear energy (Anderson 4). Though, throughout the early 1900’s how to produce this energy was still puzzling to most scientists. Leo Szilard, a Jewish man fleeing from Germany in 1933 figured out that colliding a neutron with a nucleus would start the chain reaction needed to produce massive amounts of energy. Then, this energy could be channeled into a weapon that could wipe out an entire city. Szilard was afraid that his new nuclear research might get into the wrong hands. Eventually, he turned to another German scientist that was known around the world, Albert Einstein. Einstein agreed that this research in the grasp of Germany could mean the end of days. Finally, they decided it was best to give it to a strong ally power, the United States (Anderson 12-17).
1.Thinkquest, (2006). Fusion: Future Energy. Retrieved August 1, 2007, from Energy Matters Web site: http://library.thinkquest.org/20331/types/fusion/advant.html
Nuclear weapons are categorized into two types of weapons, which are nuclear fission, and fission induced reactions that trigger a fusion reaction. A nuclear fission bomb is also referred as an Atomic Bomb, a fission-induced nuclear weapon is referred to as a thermonuclear weapons and a hydrogen bomb (Union of Concerned Scientists [UCSUSA], 2009, p. 1). Thermonuclear weapons are able to create larger explosions than fission weapons by using fission and fusion instead of deriving their energy solely from fission (UCSUSA, 2009, p. 2). In the “Physics of Nuclear Weapons” the design of thermonuclear weapons is explained by two basic components, which are the “primary” and the “secondary” (“The Physics of Nuclear Weapons, p. 6). These two basic components are also called the Teller-Ulam design, which is a “two-stage bomb”, the basic design for all thermonuclear weapons (Fusion Weapon Physics 2.0 section, para. 1). This report will examine the beginning and development of thermonuclear weapons. Which involves the first thermonuclear weapon detonation in 1952 (“Race for the Superbomb”, para. 1). Also the development from the first thermonuclear weapon to the present day “Boosted” (UCSUSA, 2009, p. 2) and “Neutron” thermonuclear bombs (Nuclear Weapons section, para. 1...
The Industrial Revolution sparked a need for large sources of energy. Human and animal labor could not provide the power necessary to power industrial machinery, railroads, and ships. The steam engine and later the internal combustion engine provided the bulk of the energy required by the industrial age. Today most nations are still heavily reliant on energy that comes from combustion. Usually coal, petrolium, and natural gas are used. Some hydroelectric, wind power, and nuclear fission sources are used, but in the US they accounted for less than 20% of the total energy consumption in 1997 (1). Many experts are worried that natural resources such as coal and petrolium are being depleted faster than they are being replenished, which could result in an energy crisis. Nuclear fission produces highly radioactive waste that is expensive to dispose of properly. Nuclear fusion reactors would produce much less radioactive waste and would be more efficient than nuclear fission, but to date there have been no nuclear fusion reactors that have generated usable energy output. Why is fusion power, which could be very beneficial, so hard to come by?