Glanders, caused by a bacterium (Burkholderia mallei, earlier known as as Pseudomonas mallei or Actinobacillus mallei), is a contagious and deadly zoonotic disease which affects equines (horses, donkeys & mules) as well as humans. In horses, it appears as a chronic disease, while in donkeys and mules it is an acute disease. Man is the accidental host, usually the disease resulting from occupational contact. The bacterium possesses potential to be used as a biological weapon, a category B bio-threat agent, due to its capability to spread via inhalation route. The disease is characterized by nodules and ulcerations in the upper respiratory tract and lungs. ‘Farcy’ is its form of skin/subcutaneous affections. Glanders has been eradicated from developed countries. During World War I the agent has been accused for being used as a biological warfare agent. The present paper is an overview on Glanders, its etiology, epidemiology, the disease, recent trends in diagnosis, prevention and control of this important disease of equines having high public health concerns.
Etiology, susceptible host and mode of transmission
Burkholderia mallei is a gram negative, non-spore forming, facultative intracellular and rod shaped bacterium, which grows aerobically and require glycerol in media as an enrichment agent. On Glycerol Dextrose Agar (GDA), there is a confluent, slightly cream-coloured growth that is smooth, moist and viscid after 24h of incubation. The capsule consist protects the cell from unfavourable environmental factors. B. mallei has no flagellae and are thus nonmotile. The bacterium gets destroyed by exposure to direct sunlight within 24 hrs. Common disinfectants (phenol, potassium permanganate, copper sulphate, formalin and chlorine) a...
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...used as biological weapon in biowarfares/terrorism. It is a highly contagious and fatal disease and therefore, active monitoring of Glanders is necessary. Timely diagnosis glanders is an important factor for follow up of appropriate treatment. Regulatory strategies require proper disposal of diseased animals. For extremely valuable breeding stocks, effective treatment modalities and post-exposure prophylaxis need to be implemented. There is no effective vaccine for this disease, long courses of antibiotics is required to eliminate/eradicate this pathogen. The development of effective novel vaccines and measures to combat this deadly pathogen having high zoonotic threat including its probale use in biowarfares are highly in demand. Proper trade restrictions need to be adapted, an exporting country must be free of the disease for at least 6 months prior to shipment.
The Gram positive bacteria has been nicknamed Posi. The Gram positive species’ morphology includes having an opaque opacity with a smooth margin. The moisture content of the Gram positive species is shiny and the pigmentation is gold. The Gram positive species grows at an optimal temperature of 37°C. The shape of the Gram positive species is a cocci, with an arrangement of grapelike clusters. The Gram positive species’ size ranges from .5-1.5 µm. Oxygen requirement of the Gram positive species is facultative, and has complete lysis of red blood cells. All results are summarized in Table
The purpose of this study is to identify an unknown bacterium from a mixed culture, by conducting different biochemical tests. Bacteria are an integral part of our ecosystem. They can be found anywhere and identifying them becomes crucial to understanding their characteristics and their effects on other living things, especially humans. Biochemical testing helps us identify the microorganism present with great accuracy. The tests used in this experiment are rudimentary but are fundamental starting points for tests used in medical labs and helps students attain a better understanding of how tests are conducted in a real lab setting. The first step in this process is to use gram-staining technique to narrow down the unknown bacteria into one of the two big domains; gram-negative and gram-positive. Once the gram type is identified, biochemical tests are conducted to narrow down the specific bacterial species. These biochemical tests are process of elimination that relies on the bacteria’s ability to breakdown certain kinds of food sources, their respiratory abilities and other biochemical conditions found in nature.
The Demon in the Freezer by Richard Preston is an intriguing book that discusses the anthrax terrorist attacks after 9/11 and how smallpox might become a future bioterrorist threat to the world. The book provides a brief history of the smallpox disease including details of an outbreak in Germany in 1970. The disease was eradicated in 1979 due to the World Health Organization’s aggressive vaccine program. After the virus was no longer a treat the World Health Organization discontinued recommending the smallpox vaccination. In conjunction, inventory of the vaccine was decreased to save money. The virus was locked up in two labs, one in the United States and one in Russia. However, some feel the smallpox virus exists elsewhere. Dr. Peter Jahrling and a team of scientists at the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases in Maryland became concerned terrorists had access to the smallpox virus and planed to alter the strain to become more resistant. These doctors conducted smallpox experiments to discover more effective vaccines in case the virus were released. Preparedness for a major epidemic is discussed as well as the ease with which smallpox can be bioengineered.
tularensis could be used as a vaccine. The bacteria would be injected in the relatively colder areas of the body and would never spread to the hotter parts (spleen, liver, etc.). The bacteria replicated only in the rats’ tails, or the site of injection. This way the body could still build up immunities. Three weeks after the initial injection of the altered F. novicida with a marine microbe (Colwellia psychrerythraea), the rats were immune to a lethal dose of unchanged F. novicida. This experiment is hopeful that it may be used the same way with its cousin, F. tularensis, which as stated earlier, is a dangerous, biochemical
Guillemin, J. (2005). Biological weapons: From the invention of state-sponsored programs to contemporary bioterrorism Columbia University Press.
Trabelsi, H., Dendana, F., Sellami, A., Sellami, H., Cheikhrouhou, F., Neji, S., … Ayadi, A. (2012). Pathogenic
...h apparently did not prevent transmission of T. equigenitalis (Erdman et al., 2011). With the exception of one, all other stallions were infected with T. equigenitalis indirectly via handling or contaminated fomites at breeding or collection facilities (Erdman et al., 2011). According to Erdman et al. (2011), this outbreak saw the largest number of horses that tested positive for the disease since the first outbreak in 1978. The source of the outbreak was most likely determined to be a stallion imported from Denmark in 2000 that had not been detected positive for T. equigenitalis neither upon pre-import testing in the country of origin nor quarantine testing in the United States (Erdman et al., 2011). The importation of this stallion in the United States subsequently led to subsequent transmission of infection between the years 2004 and 2009 (Erdman et al., 2011).
Bacteria play a large role in our health, the environment, and most aspects of life. They can be used in beneficial ways, such as decomposing wastes, enhancing fertilizer for crops, and breaking down of substances that our bodies cannot. However, many bacteria can also be very harmful by causing disease. Understanding how to identify bacteria has numerous applications and is incredibly important for anyone planning to enter the medical field or begin a career in research. Having the background knowledge of identifying an unknown bacteria may one day aid healthcare professionals diagnose their patient with a particular bacterial infection or help researchers determine various clinical, agricultural, and numerous other uses for bacteria.
The biting midge (Culicoides imicola), which is responsible for this disease’s transmission, is usually contained within Mediterranean Europe; where the conditions have been exactly what the midge demands to survive (Society for General Microbiology NP). However, with an increase in average temperature of six degrees, the midge has been allowed to travel northward threatening the cattle throughout the area and even as far as England (Society for General Microbiology NP). The spread of the midge’s territory has led to an increased number of their population, along with the amount of infected cattle.
Slack, John M. and I. S. Snyder. Bacteria and Human Disease. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc., 1978.
Exotic animals carry diseases and infections that can be potentially harmful or fatal to humans, jeopardizing the safety of the community. These diseases range in severity from common ringworm infections from African pygmy hedgehogs to lyssaviruses in p...
2. The specific microorganism should be isolated from the diseased animal and grown in pure culture on artificial laboratory media.
The purpose of this paper is to focus on a subject within my educational field that I can research and inform the public about. I plan to become a veterinarian .which would require my daily contact with humans and animals. Zoonotic diseases are risk factors that I have to be aware of in order to protect myself as well as my patients and their owners. Luckily developments in medicine have made it possible to cure zoonotic diseases and even prevent them from ever being contracted.
The duration of the experiment should be increased as the thermal death times of B. subtilis at 60, 70 and 80°C were unable to be determined within 110 minutes. The duration can be increased to 180 minutes so as to better investigate its thermal death times. If the presence of bacterial growth was still observed after 180 minutes of exposure, it can be assumed that B. subtilis is able to survive well in that temperature. An exposure time of one day can be carried out to confirm this assumption.