Review of the related Literature
In this chapter, the researcher discusses the following topics: definition of euphemism, the concept of death in Jordanian Arabic, death rituals in Jordan, the importance of death euphemism, euphemism and related expressions, from euphemism to dysphemism, and previous studies.
2.1. Definition of Euphemism.
Euphemisms are generally defined in terms of the substitution of words, phrases or expressions that may upset or suggest something unpleasant to the receiver using some acceptable and less offensive expressions instead. It's a polite and decent way used by people to talk about ill-mannered and embarrassing topics such as: death, body parts and even expressing love in front of others. For example, the use of (passed away ) in English and the use of [ɂintagala ɂila raħmatillahi taʕala] ( He transferred to the mercy of Allah) in Arabic instead of the word [ mata ] "died".
Many linguists have made some attempts to define the word euphemism from different perspectives.
Allan and Burridge (1991, p. 11) provide a definition which goes along the following lines:
"A euphemism is used as an alternative to a dispreferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: either one’s own face or, through giving offense, that of the audience, or of some third party."
Cruse ( 2006, p. 57 ) defines euphemism as "an expression that refers to something that people hesitate to mention lest it cause offence, but which lessens the offensiveness by referring indirectly in some way."
According to Crown (1976) ( cited in NOman, F. 2013), "Similar meanings are found for euphemisms in Arabic with the Arabic root (luṭf) and its derivative (laṭa:fah) which are “to be kind, friendly, thin, f...
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...ves and friends of the deceased.
2.5. Euphemism and related expressions
Allan and Burridge (2006, p. 29) create the collective term X-phemism to refer to the union set of euphemisms, dysphemisms and orthophemisms :
1- Euphemisms a milder or more positive expression used to replace a negative or unpleasant one. (A positive expression replaces a negative one).
2- Dysphemism is replacing a neutral or positive expression with a negative or unpleasant one. (A negative expression replaces a positive one). Kováčová (2013, p. 16) claims that speakers use dysphemisms when they talk about something they disapprove of and wish to humiliate and offend.
3- Orthophemism is a term they have coined in order to account for direct or neutral expressions that are not sweet-sounding, evasive or overly polite (euphemistic), nor harsh, blunt or offensive (dysphemistic).
In the modern society, millions of people realize that several offensive words with insulting taboo meanings heavily disturb their daily lives and break some special groups of people’s respect to push them to feel like outsiders of the whole society. As a result, more and more people join some underway movements to eliminate the use of these offensive words in people’s everyday speech and writing. However, these offensive words themselves are not the culprit, the bad meanings people attach are the problems and some other functions of the words are useful in the society. Christopher M. Fairman the author of “ Saying It Is Hurtful, Banning It Is Worse” also argues that although
In 1978 a radio station owned by Pacifica Foundation Broadcasting out of New York City was doing a program on contemporary attitudes toward the use of language. This broadcast took place on a mid-afternoon weekday. Immediately before the broadcast the station announced a disclaimer telling listeners that the program would include "sensitive language which might be regarded as offensive to some."(Gunther, 1991) Pacifica believed that this was enough warning to give people who would be offended, but placing a warning in front of something is like placing chocolate cake in front of a fat guy. Humans thirst for the unknown, and at this time, sexual perversion was a big unknown.
The term signifying refers to the playful, humorous indirection or innuendo, the talking around an implied meaning, the ambiguous metaphor, the invective that only works if the opponent lacks humor and responds in a literal fashion. Signifying is an attitude toward language, but it is also a social gambit: signifying enables the man and the woman of words to challenge and criticize without becoming committed to any particular claim or meaning: for only the response will tell. For instance, if I say, ‘Yo mama so old, her social security number is ‘1’”, and you say, ‘Fuck you, man”, you’ve lost, you took what was in the figurative and put it in the literal thus committing yourself to the fact that your mom is old. Now, if you reply, “well YO mama so old, when she was in school there was no history class”, or “yo mama so old, when God said ‘let there be light’ she hit the switch” then the signifying can continue.
All appear to be oxymoron's, but make some sense once the reader has progressed through the book, for example, the term "War is Peace" has a simple, but somewhat complex explanation.
* Euthanasia: traditionally, an easy, painless death. Now used to mean "mercy killing," "assisted suicide," or "involuntary euthanasia."
One specific example is, “...We are becoming a callous, chickenhearted and immoral people…” Wainwright uses words such as callous, and immoral, to show his stern disapproval of the witnesses actions. In this sentence, Wainwright is calling out everyone, saying that more people need to be good Samaritans, and help when someone is in need. This is because Kitty Genovese had at least 38 witnesses, but not one of them went outside their home to help her, and not one of them called the police until after the murderer had driven off. Another example of Wainwright’s use of diction is, “Another witness had the awful distinction of being the only person Kitty Genovese recognized in the audience, taking in her final moments.” This was when Kitty called the man she recognized by his name, but he didn’t answer, he ignored her, leaving her helpless. With the specific content of the sentence, it appears that Wainwright shows her sarcasm towards the man that had to go through those “traumatizing” moments. By Kitty calling the man’s name, it shows the inexcusable public apathy from him, for not caring, or bothering to see what she
One example is the use of the word “fuck”. In my house hold growing up I attempted to use this work once when I dropped a plate. It was the angriest my father has ever been at me. This word is often considered the worst of the curse words in modern English. This simple utterance has been in use since the early 16th century. Fuck often evokes strong emotion and response, considered one of the seven dirty words that can’t be said on American broadcast
One example is explained when Wright said “Whut yuh tryin’ t’ do, nigger, git smart?” (Wright 4) This is verbal abuse because the word “nigger” is what whites would call blacks in a bad way. No one should call anyone something they don’t want to be called. “Nigger” is a word that was used towards blacks when white people would feel disrespected by black people. This was a word used to make black people feel like they are lower than white people, like slaves; even though some were. Even though “nigger” is a word that is still used today, it is not as offensive as it was back then. When black people use this word among themselves, it’s not really a problem, but if a white person calls a black person ‘nigger’ it brings some hostility. Another example explained in Wright’s “The Ethics of Living Jim Crow” is when he said “You black son-of-a-bitch! You call me Pease, then!” (Wright 6). This is verbal abuse because using profanity towards a person is verbal abuse, especially toward a child. Calling someone that word could make a person feel so low in a way. This could make a person feel low in a way where it’s double-consciousness (Dubois). Double-consciousness is when you feel some type of way about yourself and it could be different in the eyes of others. Meaning you might think you’re smart, while others think you’re dumb. When you call someone a name, like “son-of-a-bitch” could make you change
...eone say something funny or dressed differently, people would say “you are so gay”. The term is often misuse a lot.
...o uses the word almost laughingly behind Othello's back, telling him that he has been driven to honesty, when he know that Iago is only telling Othello half truths. Shakespeare uses the word effectively to create dramatic irony.
Another form of degradation towards women in this genre are through demeaning slurs like B*tch, Ho, etc. As one
This is most likely why people do not consider penis to be a taboo word. The word is not usually used dysphemistically, because it is a medical term. It is not likely that someone would call someone else a penis, but it is likely that a person will be called a dick. As I stated before, the latter does not make me uncomfortable, which is contrary to the typical reaction. Because penis is a formal word, it is not often used idiomatically because it is not considered cool to say the word. Similarly, it is not common that penis would be used either emphatically or cathartically because it is a formal medical term. Ultimately, it is difficult to class why hearing or saying this word makes me uncomfortable. However, I believe that words are like foods – some people do not mind (or like) broccoli (the word dick) and some people hate it, and most people do not mind (or like) strawberries, but there are a select few that absolutely hate it (like how I feel about the word
Supposedly, we reveal what is really on our mind by saying something we didn’t truly intend to. As one has put it before, “when you say one thing and mean your mother”. Sigmund Freud believed that slips of the tongue provided an insight into the unconscious mind and that accidents didn’t just happen or exist. Every behavior including slips of the tongue were significant. Supposedly, what the Freudian slip hides is called Shadow Archetype. Often these turn out to be innuendos or other sexual references.
I will begin this paper by reciting some of the definitions that I did find.
Let’s start with something simple. Oxymorons. Let’s say you’re getting ready for a job interview and as you’re leaving the house, someone yells out behind you, “Just Act Natural, you’ll be fine.” You get in the car and the only thing you get on your mind is “acing natural.” A person can’t act and be natural at the same time and the entire time you’re driving to the job interview, you’re thinking, what can I do to act more natural. That, my friend, is an oxymoron and can easily be mis-interrupted. You’ve heard of them before. They can easily be defined as a couple of words contradicting one another but used as a fixed expression. A couple of examples, found missing, same difference, good grief, and airline food.