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The prison reform movements 1800s to today 2020 summary essay
History of prison reforms
The prison reform movements 1800s to today 2020 summary essay
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Transportation 1788-1868
The process of transporting convicted criminals to Australia came about as a result of Britain's defeat in the American War of Independence. With the loss of this colony, Britain also lost its primary depository for its surplus criminal population; and, for a time, these excess numbers were housed in floating jails - 'hulks' - moored on the Thames. This proved an unpopular policy and so, in 1787, a British fleet set sail to build a penal colony at Botany Bay in New South Wales - seventeen years after James Cook had landed there. Robert Hughes, in his study The Fatal Shore, describes this undertaking as 'a new colonial experiment, never tried before, not repeated since. An unexplored continent would become a jail.'
The choice of New South Wales was an unusual one, for Cook had described it as barren, and A.G.L. Shaw notes in Convicts and the Colonies that 'it seemed wholly useless for trade'. It would appear that all the British government required was a place to dispose of its criminal classes and subsequently forget about them, ignoring commercial considerations. The inhospitable nature of the place seemed ideal for ne'er-do-wells, and its distant location meant that few were likely to return.
Many crimes, from petty theft to murder, were deemed worthy of transportation, and there seems to have been little distinction made between types of criminal, which concerned social reformers of the time. Household Words expressed concern that 'hardened ruffians of the deepest dye were chained hand to hand, during a six month voyage, with simple country poachers, pickpockets of tender age, and sailor smugglers.' All prisoners were treated alike, and conditions were harsh; appalling living conditions, disease, hunger, floggings and general neglect were prevalent and many convicts died en route or upon arrival.
However there was hope on the horizon for some prisoners; those who behaved well were hired out to emigrant farmers to become, like Dickens' Magwitch, 'sheep farmer(s), stock breeder(s) and other trades besides.' Thus convicts could make some sort of return to respectability. Not only that: those who had completed their terms were granted small plots of land, with the aim of boosting the local economy and ensuring that these undesirable - regardless of whether their crimes were 'worked out and paid for' - did not return to British shores.
The response from the metropolitan centre to these emancipist settlers who flourished was one of outrage; they feared that transportation would be perceived as a great blessing by the criminal classes, rather than as a deterrent.
“From the beginning, Japanese observers referred to the dramatic series of events from September 1931 onwards as the Manchurian 'incident' (jihen), a term apparently denoting an undeclared war..” Many historians agree with this statement and others think it was not so much an undeclared war but it was a major turning point for military usage in japan. Some believe that it was the start to the road to pearl harbor. Historian takehiko Yoshihashi believed that the Manchurian crisis was responsible for bringing the army's influence into japanese politics.
“…regarded it among their earliest practical necessities to allot a portion of the virgin soil as a cemetery, and another portion as the site of a prison” (Hawthorne). This quote from The Scarlet Letter is actually true. Prisons were among the first buildings built among colonization. The prisons were not for punishment- that was usually done publicly. Punishments fell into the four categories of fines, public shame, physical chastisement, and death. These prisons were usually just holding places for those awaiting trial or awaiting punishment. During the 18th century, there was a dramatic change in the look and function of prisons. With the industrial revolution came growing cities, capitalism, and crime. Americans began
perspective of Japan’s power was both inaccurate and underestimated. Japan and China were in a war, and rather than in Japan, the U.S. had interests in China. On top of that, it supplied no respect to the Japanese in China either. By submitting to the economic reprisals on trade administered by the U.S., “not only would Japan's prestige be entirely destroyed and the solution of the China Affair rendered impossible, but Japan's existence itself would be endangered” (Kiong 2). Japan needed a way to sustain itself, and having two of the most powerful nations against it did not support its case. In order to save its nation, Japan started spreading propaganda about the U.S. Even though Japan asked to restart the shipments, the U.S. refused to have any affiliations with it. Hence, their brash attitude and underestimation of Japan elicited the foreign nation’s inclination for revenge. However, this was not the only indication that Japan was going to retaliate (Wukovits
Two oceans to the East, Japan was deep into a war of its own. Japanese forces were concentrated on the Chinese front to conquer and obtain. As a result of its unpopular declaration of war...
The country of Pakistan has not always oppressed women. The former man in charge of Pakistan professed, “No struggle can ever succeed without women participating side by side with men. There are two powers in the world; one is the sword and the other is the pen. There is a third power stronger than both, that of women (Lamb and Yousafzai 31).” It was not until a general named Zia ul-Haq threw a coup and seized control of the government that women and men’s rights became incomparable under Islamic Law. Zia’s regime did not allow women to play most sports, have access to healthcare, or open a bank account, and, in...
Exhausted and undernourished by the time they boarded the large oceangoing vessels, the captives were placed in dark and crowded holds. Most had been poked and prodded by slave traders, and some had been branded to ensure that a trader received the exact individuals he had purchased. Once in the hold, they might wait for weeks before the ship finally set sail. By that time, the foul-smelling and crowded hold became a nightmare of disease and despair. There was never sufficient food or fresh water for the captives, and women especially were subject to sexual abuse and rape by crew members. Many captives could not communicate with each other since they spoke different languages, and none of them knew exactly where they were going or what would happen when
Prior to this attack, Japan had issues with the United States and other large government countries starting in 1915. Japan put its “Twenty One Demands” on China, giving Japan a bigger status in parts of the country. When the United States enforced the Open Door Policy, Japan’s demands were no longer enforced. Later, the Great Depression in the U.S. made Japan’s economic problems worse; they were dependent on international trade since their island country had only few natural resources. To add to their list of problems, Japan was overpopulated and many countries, mainly the United States, had denied entry of Japanese immigrants. Japan’s military leaders thought the only way to solve the country’s issues was to invade China. After several aggressions against parts of China, the United States had issued a policy to limit economic sanctions against Japan, refuse the recognition of Japanese military conquests, and equal military and economic assistance for China. Japan blamed foreign interference for China’s refusal to give in to Japan’s terms. The Japanese then wanted to find a way to block foreign assistance from getting to China, so they could then take over the country. In 1940, Japan saw Germany as a strong and reliable country to team up with because of their lightning victories. At the time, there were territories in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific that were controlled by large power European countries, such as France, the Netherlands and Britain. It was bel...
Also, the ship’s crew often treated the Africans badly; they often whipped them because many of the people resisted and tried to escape from the cargo ship.
"One day, when we had a smooth sea, and a moderate wind, two of my wearied countrymen, who were chained together (I was near them at the time), preferring death to such a life of misery, somehow made through the nettings, and jumped into the sea: immediately another quite dejected fellow, who, on account of his illness, was suffered to be out of irons, also followed their example; and I believe many more would soon have done the same, if they had not been prevented by the ship’s crew, who were instantly alarmed. Those of us that were the most active were, in a moment, put down under the deck; and there was such a noise and confusion amongst the people of the ship as I never heard before, to stop her, and get the boat to go out after the slaves. However, two of the wretches were drowned, but they got the other, and afterwards flogged him unmercifully, for thus attempting to prefer death to slavery." (Equiano 749)
"Perhaps worse than the physical pain was the psychological damage done to the slaves who were whipped" (Currie 47). If a person wasn't born a slave, they were forced into being one. Slaves were commonly captives from the losing side of a battle, even the defeated soldiers' families could be enslaved. People would also sell their children to pay off a large debt. Once a slave was captured, there was a journey to survive. They were transported in large cargo ships named slave ships. Here, they would travel up to months while suffering from mental and physical abuse. While on board, each slave was stripped naked and inspected by the captain or a surgeon. Men were shoved under the deck and fixed with heavily painful leg irons. At times, they were not even able to move, or stand, from being too crammed together. The women and children were kept in w different section of the ship. Occasionally, they would be let onto the deck of the ship to move around. Although, this often brought them sexual abuse from the crew. On days with good weather, slaves would be woken up in the middle of the morning to exercise on the deck. Usually, slaves were fed twice a day, but if they refused to eat they would be force fed ("Life" 2-3). Also, horrible hygienic conditions meant they were in constant risk of getting infected with diseases. A harmless disease could easily turn into a deadly one on a slave ship, and if a slave were to die, their dead body would be thrown overboard.
It is prudent to speak here to the inhumane way in which the slaves were transported during this first leg of the journey. The trading of slaves was very lucrative for the Europeans. As it goes in business, the higher the demand, the larger the quantities supplied. All the slaves were branded to show to whom they belonged, and the male slaves were shackled together and packed in the hole like sardines, while the women and children were sometimes allowed to stay on deck. Any acts of aggression by the men or women resulted in severe beatings to discourage the behavior. Imagine being beaten and shackled with a rival tribe man or not being able to communicate with the person beside you because you both spoke different languages!
One of, if not the most influential part, of allowing the bombs to drop is because of the mentality of the Japanese military and the pull they had in politics. As Maddox stated, “[t]he army, not the Foreign Office controlled the situation” (Maddox, pg. 286). Although Japan had an influential leader in regards to their emperor, the military wanted to and would have engag...
The debate over Japan’s potential instigation of World War II raged on as intensely as the aggressive policies of Japan in question. Both teams engaged in total warfare, utilizing statistics, harsh interrogations through cross-examinations, and all other weapons available to them, in order to defend their grounds from attack. But while some arguments had proven to be successfully devastating, several others had been misused, misinterpreted, or simply unstated; specifically, the contentions regarding Japan’s excluded state from global international politics, the trigger of the Second Sino-Japanese War, and the rationale behind the attack on Pearl Harbor could have been substantially augmented on both sides.
McMurty, John. "Caging the Poor: The Case Against the Prison System." The Case For Penal Abolition. Ed. W. Gordon West and Ruth Morris. Toronto, Canada: Canadian Scholars' Press, 2000. 167-186.
Organizations have leaders who are effective and ineffective. Many of us want to be leaders but, do we have what it takes to be effective or are we going to be ineffective. Leaders are people who build their organization and employees up. Ineffective leaders are those who only care about getting a check. This paper will discuss effective and ineffective leaders. The effective and ineffective leaders I have had the pleasure to work with.