Introduction
Hepatitis B, an infectious disease caused by the Hepatitis B virus (HBV, a DNA virus), was formerly called serum hepatitis, inoculation hepatitis and post-transfusion hepatitis. Infection with HBV may result in acute, fulminant or chronic hepatitis, sometimes even resulting in a chronic asymptomatic carrier state, apart from hepatocellular carcinoma and liver cirrhosis (Davis 179). The disease is transmitted when an individual comes in contact with infected blood or objects. It may also be transferred from an infected mother to her infant either during or after birth (Zuckerman et al. 211). Transmission may also occur by accidental inoculation from infected needles and hospital equipment, intravenous drug abuse, body piercing, tattooing, and mouth-mouth kissing (Zuckerman et al. 210). The risk of Hepatitis B is particularly high in individuals with multiple sex partners, and in homosexuals. The HBV virus occurs in morphologically different forms in the serum of infected individuals. HBV infection has an incubation period of about 75 days. Systemic symptoms of the disease include fatigue, fever, dyspepsia, arthralgia, malaise, and rash, while local symptoms include hepatomegaly, jaundice, dark urine, and pale stools (Davis 179; Zuckerman et al. 210).
Anatomical/physiological/biochemical changes that lead to the disease
Hepatitis B results from cellular injury to the liver, subsequently affecting its metabolic functions. However, the HBV is not cytopathic by itself. The pathogenesis of Hepatitis B occurs as a result of the interactions between the host’s immune system and the virus. The host immune system targets HBV in liver cells (hepatocytes), inadvertently causing damage to the liver. HBV derived proteins (...
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...BeAg), bilirubin level, and platelet count (Pyrsopoulos and Reddy). The disease prognosis can be done by calculating the prognostic index based on the status of these six variables.
Conclusion
HBV infection is complex and affects a large population worldwide. The discovery of the Australia antigen (HBsAg) in 1965 by Blumberg et al. (1965) set the stage for rapid progress in understanding and counteracting the disease (qtd in Zuckerman et al. 210). Liver function tests help in estimating the extent of damage caused to the liver during HBV infection. Diagnosis is done by detecting viral specific antigens in the serum. Both active and passive immunization options exist for disease prophylaxis. However, it is always best to practice caution over the parenteral, sexual and other routes of transmission of the disease for effective disease prevention and prophylaxis.
Renal and hepatic function tests include creatinine test, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) test, bilirubin test, and others. Urinalysis includes urine osmolality tests and urine culture tests. The sooner one’s sepsis is diagnosed and managed, the better the chances are one has to survive. There are three identifiable stages of sepsis. The three stages are, in order, sepsis, severe sepsis, and septic shock. The stage of sepsis is achieved when an infection enters the bloodstream and enacts inflammatory responses throughout the body. This stage is not as life threatening as the next two stages but should be assessed and treated for as soon as possible. The stage of severe sepsis is achieved when an infection disrupts the flow of blood to the brain or renal organs resulting towards organ failure. There can be an occurrence of gangrene in the arms, legs, fingers, and toes exhibiting tissue death caused by blood clots. If treatment is not given quickly in this stage then septic shock is bound to occur. The stage of septic shock is achieved when the overall blood pressure drops drastically leading to respiratory, cardiac, or organ failure and likely death This stage demands
The Hepatitis B virus is a disease that affects the liver and results in swelling and loss of normal function in the liver. It is estimated that 350 million people are infected with Hepatitis B worldwide, with 50 million new cases diagnosed every year.(1) In the Unit...
Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) is a virus that attacks the liver. The virus is transmitted through blood and bodily fluids. This can occur through direct blood-to-blood contact, unprotected sex, use of contaminated needles, and from an effected mother to her newborn during the delivery process. The majority of people do not have noticeable symptoms when they are first infected with the HBV. People who do not know they are infected with the HBV, their body can respond in different ways. I learned that some of the common symptoms of Hepatitis B infection include fever, fatigue, muscle or joint pain, loss of appetite, mild nausea, vomiting, and dark-colored urine. Some of the serious symptoms that require immediate medical attention and maybe even hospitalization are: severe nausea and vomiting, yellow eyes and skin (jaundice), bloated or swollen stomach.
HAV is known to be an infectious disease that usually occurs in children and young adults .The disease is usually transmitted from person to person through contaminated food, liquids or oral fecal route. An example would be when someone is carrying the virus and doesn’t wash their hands after using the restroom and then puts food in their mouth. HAV is most common in developing countries because of the living conditions and inadequate water, poor sewage facilities and sanitary conditions. The highest HAV levels in the world are from India,” Earlier reports suggest that India is hyperendemic for HAV infection2,4-6 with very high infection rates,” (Sowmyanarayanan). Most HAV are without severe complications, “Virus HAV infection rarely causes fulminant hepatic failure in people…,” (Vento,p.1) . The symptoms for HAV are high fever, nausea, vomiting and jaundice...
Hepatitis B is a DNA viral infection that causes damage and inflammation to the liver. It was first discovered in 1965 by Dr. Baruch Blumberg. The HBV virus is very contagious and is even thought to be the most serious form of viral hepatitis and the most common viral infection on Earth. “HBV is 100 times more infectious than HIV.” (Green, 2002, pg. 7) The virus can survive for about one week outside the body on a dry surface. According to Green (2002, pg. 7), “One in twenty Americans has been infected with the virus at some point in their lives.” Between the ages of 15-39 is when 75% of new HBV infections occur, according to Green (2002, pg.8).
Pathogens are a type of microorganism that spreads viral and bacterial diseases. These diseases when present in human blood and body fluids are known as blood borne pathogens, and can spread from one person to another. (Worcester polytechnic institute) The most serious types of blood borne diseases are the hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), which can cause liver damage; and HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), which is responsible for causing AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome). The blood borne pathogens can be spread when the blood or body fluids (semen, vaginal fluid, breast milk, and amniotic fluid) of an infected individual comes into contact with mucous membranes or an open sore or cut on the skin of another person. Mucus membranes are located in the eyes, nose, mouth, and other areas as well. ("Bloodborne pathogens: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia") Two of the most common ways that pathogens are transmitted is through the exchange of fluids during sexual intercourse or by sharing infected IV needles. (Worcester polytechnic institute)
Acute HBV infection is the most common type of infection in low endemic countries. The incubation period, from transmission to clearness, ranges from 40-180 days. The infection is either symptomatic or asymptomatic/ fulminant hepatitis. Children under the age of 5 years rarely experience symptomatic infection (10%), where’s about 30-40% infected adults and children above age 5 experience a symptomatic infection with yellowing of skin and teeth, vomiting, fatigue, laxity and abdominal pain [1].
Hepatitis A is a usually short acting virus that occurs in humans and monkeys. It is caused by the Hepatovirus and the species is Hepatitis A Virus. There are two major ways in which Hepatitis A can be transmitted. One way is from person to person. This transmission occurs when the fecal matter of an infected person gets ingested by another person. Other ways Hepatitis A can be transmitted from person to person are through direct contact with an infected person, such as sexual contact, and sharing of needles for intravenous drug use. Hepatitis A can also be transmitted through coming in contact with contaminated food or water. Also foods that are uncooked or undercooked and have been contaminated with Hepatitis A can transmit the virus. (Bennett,
Hepatitis A being spread can be prevented by properly washing your hands with soap and water before and after preparing food and drinks. Washing hands thoroughly, after using the bathroom and changing diapers. Disinfecting kitchen counters, cutting boards and cooking utensils after use (5). It is recommended that if you feel you may have been contaminated with the virus that you see a healthcare provider promptly and ask about the Hepatitis A vaccine that is available. If you receive the vaccine within fourteen days of exposure illness can be prevented, it is unlikely you will contract Hepatitis A if you've been vaccinated prior.
“This knowledge will help us design drugs that mimic the viral effects on these proteins to either activate a host’s immune response or shut it down,” said Dr. Michael Gale, associate ...
In septic patients, increased levels of PAI-1 inhibit plasminogen activator (t-PA), which converts plasminogen to plasmin. Release of fibrin inhibits fibrinolysis by activation of thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor (TAFI). In addition, the release of PAF causes platelet aggregation. This combination of inhibition of fibrinolysis, fibrin strand production and platelet aggregation contribute to a state of coagulopathy. This can lead to microcirculatory dysfunction with isolated or multiple organ dysfunction and cell death. Mr Hertz’s coagulation profile showed a fibrinogen level of 5.6 g/L, indicating that coagulopathies were underway in his system.
Hepatitis A virus, until 1 week after onset of illness or as directed by the health department when passive immunoprophylaxis (currently, immune serum globulin) has been administered to appropriate children and staff and a licensed physician states in writing the child may
Viruses can be transmitted in many ways. Being in contact with an infected person will most likely transfer the virus. One can also obtain the virus through swallowing, inhaling, and unsafe sex. Poor hygiene and eating habits usually increase the risk of catching a viral infection. Contracting a viral infection is followed by adverse s...
Prevention of this virus would have been simple. There is a vaccine for Hepatitis B,however it wasn't used routinely until the 1980's , so many of these elderly may not have received it. In addition to this, there are ways to avoid transmission of Hepatitis B in this fashion (assisted monitoring of blood glucose). The personnel could have simply followed the rules and regulations set forth by the CDC for preventing transmission of blood-born pathogens. Outbreaks like this are less likely to occur in places like nursing homes because they are subject to federal regulations where these assisted living facilities are not. Federal regulation may help to prevent outbreaks like this also. Proper training of personnel in the area of blood-born pathogen transmission should be a requirement.
In Australia in the last ten years more then 137 known people have died and many more fallen very ill from contagious and infectious disease. Diseases such as diphtheria; tetanus, pertussis, poliomyelitis, measles, mumps rubella and Haemophilus influenzae, This is a great tragedy considering all these diseases are easily preventable by immunisation.