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Origin of science and technology
Women in science during the enlightenment era
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The Male Ego and the Perception of Women in Science
In the beginning, there were as many women in science as there were men. Most myths and religions credit women for the invention of agriculture, law, civilization, math, time measurement, and medicine (Newintro). Think about how many different goddesses there have been in mythology. Since then, politics, power, pride, and prejudice have motivated many men and some women to discourage women in science. Male perception and ego have shaped contemporary thinking on women in science.
Often, women were much more prevalent and influential, in science, than was later recognized. More contemporary historians worked at discrediting women, because they refused to believe women capable enough (Alic, 3). Even today, attitudes often work against the female of the species. A textbook published in 1958 had no mention of women at all! This book was supposed to be about the history of science from 1450 to 1800.
Man's history (yes men) is dominated by wars and other such memorable events, and much less by advances. The history of science is thought of as the history of a very few men (namely Aristotle, Copernicus, Newton, and Einstein). Many of the thousands of "lesser" thinkers of history, that made the universe altering leaps of those "very few" possible, were women (Alic, 1).
Another factor, affecting the perception of historical women in science, is the historians' focusing on the universities as the center of intellectual life. The universities of the 18th century did not all deserve this reputation (Schiebinger, 17). Many socially prominent women dominated the gatherings at salons. The salons, which were held in the homes of socially prominent people, were the true centers of...
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...pers, lab assistants, assistant-mates, or even totally forgotten (Alic, 5). Most often the women had their work credited to a man, a husband, brother, father, or colleague.
Sources
4000 Years of Women in Science. http://www.astr.ua.edu/4000ws/NEWINTRO.html, acc. 4/26/1998
History of Science: The Beginning of Modern Science(from1450 to 1800), Basic Books, Inc., New York, 1958
Alic, Margaret. Hypatia's Heritage:A History of Women in Science from Antiquity through the Nineteenth Century. Beacon Press, Boston, 1986
Maria Gaetana Agnesi, http://www.astr.ua.edu/4000ws/AGNESI.html, acc.4/26/1998
Nobel, David F. A World Without Women: The Christian Clerical Culture of Western Science. Alfred A Knopf, Inc., New York, 1992
Schiebinger, Londa. The Mind has no Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Ma., 1989
Roscher, Nina M., and Cavanaugh, Margaret A. (1987) The 'Standard' of the 'Standard'. " Academic Women Chemists in the 20th Century: Past, Present, Projections." Journal of Chemical Education 64:823-827.
The Bob Ross oil paints are specially formulated to meet the consistencies he prefers in the various colors on his palette. He also has a specific range of colors he uses. There are soft and firm versions of many of his colors. That is how important the liquidity is in his painting style. The thinner paints are used in the early stages of painting, while the thicker paint is used in the latter stages. This is known as thick over thin. If a thin layer of paint is applied over thick, there is a danger of cracking, unless it has been made more supple with the appropriate oil medium.
Ruether, Rosemary Radford. "Anthropology: Humanity as Male and Female" in Sexism and God-Talk: Toward a Feminist Theology. Beacon Press, 1993, pp. 93-115.
One of the most influential speeches ever given on the earth was given on a potiumat the Lincoln Momorial in Washington D.C on August 28th 1963. The great speech was given by Martin Luther King Jr. who deciatied his time on earth to prove that all people are equal. Martin Luther used different parts of the English language to enhance the meaning of his speech and bring out the details. The different rhetorical devices, allusions to historic documents, and metaphors seemed to have brought about the emotions that King was trying to arouse in his listeners. This helped him influence his listeners towards wanting equality for all and changing what was happening in the present so they didn't repeat things in the past .
Jordanova, Ludmilla. Sexual Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine between the 18th and 20th Centuries. London: Harrester Wheatsheaf, 1989.
If women lack intelligence and cannot be a scientist, then what should they be? If they can’t act intelligent, then how should they act? Woman should stick to their society roles and stay away from thinking the way a male is expected to think. A woman thinking scientifically is considered to be thinking like a man (Keller 77). Keller’s statement explains that science is considered to be a male subject. It is not appropriate for females to think scientifically. Women then begin to get treated differently because they are not meeting society’s
Women's Brain When you look at the dictionary, the definition of 'Science' is "a branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or truths systematically arranged and showing the operation of general laws" (Webster's dictionary). In order to make a truth, many scientists take the time to observe or test with scientific methods. In the nineteenth century, there are some incorrect truths, even if it looks like truths logically arranged by scientific method, because the scientists understood the priori that already assumed the outcome would be the same as their predictions. As I read Stephen Jay Gould's argument from "Women's Brains", he found some unequal conditions that supported scientific method for intelligence of man. Paul Broca tried to measure the inferiority of women with scientific criteria that were invidious comparisons such as races, classes, and sexes.
Maurice Wilkins: This scientist is seen as somewhat sexist, because he does not believe in the potential of Rosalind’s scientific abilities. At the same time, he seemed to be dedicated to work, but Rosalind seems to do a majority of the work.
Racism and equality was a major problem that dominated America and is still a major issue today. During Martin Luther King Jr.’s time, these problems were at its’ highest peak. On August 28, 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his revolutionary “I Have A Dream” speech in Lincoln Memorial Park. This speech demanded justice and equality for African Americans. King was one of many protesters who fought long and hard for equality and freedom to all Americans. His speech told the dreams of millions of Americans, demanding a free, equal, and just nation. In his speech, he stressed the idea of equality between colored and whites, and connected his pain with millions. Ethos, pathos, and metaphor are three of the elements that made Martin Luther
229). According to the founding members of Royal Society, the rise of the masculine philosophy was going to be accomplished without the involvement of any women. In nineteenth century it twas believed that in order to be able to conduct real science women's exclusions was unquestionably necessary. The male domination in science, and undermining of women's intellect was upsetting a lot of women. Only few women at the time had the courage to challenge this thyps of philosophies and Margaret Cavendish was one of them. Cavendish always expressed her dissatisfaction about the unavailable higher education for women in universities. Cavendish added her concern that if things did not change withe in the near future she would not be able to put her work forward and have her influence on philosophy. Scince the nineteenth century a lot has changed in the benefit of women in science but we still have long way to go until we reach complete equality among sexes in science. Acording to Women, Gender, and Science The need for orbitals in Higher education Ingrid Bartsch mentions that “it is time for ideas already accepted by feminists to permeate the thick insulation that both protects and isolates the natural science, to explore ways that women’s studies and sciences might become legitimate partners in the production of future scientists. Today, with all the women presents in science it is easy to forget about the hardship women had to go trough in the nineteenth
Many women scientist upheld and defended their positions as learned, scientific individuals. Marie Meurdrac, a French scientist, in a foreword to a publication stated clearly that women’s and men’s minds, if thought in the same manner would hold no difference.(Doc 2) Similarly, Dorothea Erxleben understood and explained why men and women alike look down on her for studying science because they feel that it is an insult.(Doc 9) Her experiences as a female scientist led her to truly grasp why her persecutors acted as they did towards her although this document shows no signs that she thinks the same. Maria Sibylla Merian, a German entomologist, discussed some of her scientific practices that encompass her dedication and fascination with science.(Doc 5) Another example of this whole-hearted dedication comes from Marquis...
Murray, Judith Sargent. "On the Equality of the Sexes." Ed. Paul Lauter.The Heath Anthology of American Literature, third edition. Volume 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1992. 1058-1064.
From the steps of the Lincoln Memorial more than two score years ago, Dr. Martin Luther King electrified America with his momentous "I Have a Dream" speech. Aimed at the entire nation, King’s main purpose in this speech was to convince his audience to demand racial justice towards the mistreated African Americans and to stand up together for the rights afforded to all under the Constitution. To further convey this purpose more effectively, King cleverly makes use of the rhetorical devices — ethos, pathos and logos — using figurative language such as metaphors and repetition as well as various other techniques e.g. organization, parallel construction and choice of title.
When most people think of the Scientific Revolution, they think of scientists such as Galileo, Newton, Brahe, and Boyle. However, many people do not even know about the many women who played a vital role in the scientific advancements of this period. Even when these women were alive, most of society either ignored them or publicly disapproved their unladylike behavior. Because of this, these women were often forgotten from history, and very little is known about the majority of them. Although their names rarely appear in history books, the female scientists of the Scientific Revolution still impacted the world of science in several ways. In fact, all of the scientists listed above had a woman playing an influential role assisting them in their research. However, assisting men in their studies was not the only role open to women; several women performed experimentation and research on their own, or advancing science in some other way, even though the society of the time looked down upon and even resisted their studies.
In many cases, women’s achievements are measured according to male oriented standards. I would like to argue with a more diverse approach to this cause. If humanity is comprised of both men and women, and we are equally dependent on each other for humanity’s survival, why are men and women not viewed as equals? These old attitudes are drilled into us from birth. If boys were taught mutual respect as they grew up, gender equality becomes a natural way of life. In the same way girls would need to be taught to set high goals; that they can reach as high as humanly possible. Unfortunately, typically male values and traditions have, over time, shaped the culture in Science, Engineering and Technology (SET) fields. This has created, in many ways, a hostile learning and working environment for women. From time immemorial, women have been regarde...