The Effects of Grazing and Trampling Behaviors of Large-Sized Livestock on the Formation and Weathering Patterns of Soils
Introduction
Walter Coppinger, a Professor of Geosciences at Trinity College in San Antonio and long-time observer of Montana geology, was the first person to describe to me the many problems of the western rangelands that have developed out of the over-grazing of cattle. From a hilltop among the upland slopes of Whitehall, Montana, he pointed out a few patches of bare earth on the horizon and some gullying out of trails across the rangelands in the distance. Rangelands are areas of land on which livestock are left to roam and graze. Traditionally the great plains and rolling hills of the Western States have been dominated by rangelands left to cattle and bison, and though it has long been acknowledged that cattle grazing and roaming can alter the features of the land, the extent and depth to which they can do this has been underestimated and at times ignored. Privately owned pastures and rangelands in the United States have suffered a more than 15% decrease in number of acres since 1940, but despite figures like this one and a multitude of essays lamenting the "shrinking of the great plains," the number of cattle in the Western United States has more than doubled in the last 60 years (Trimble and Mendel, 1995; U.S. Census of Agriculture). With the numbers of grazing animals growing and the lands for them to occupy getting smaller, a better understanding of how and to what degree these animals affect the soil is needed.
Most changes in processes of soil formation and soil erosion are indirectly affected by the presence of livestock and more directly associated with the geomorphic changes these anima...
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The content of this project is based on the largest and most complete megalithic structure in Europe, The Stonehenge. It resides in center of the southern England; on the wide spread Salisbury Plains. It is said to be old approximately four thousand years, and it is even considered older than the Great Pyramids of Egypt. Standing there over such a long time, it has been the subject of research and mystery in general, for a really long time. Dozens of notable scientists, emperors and others expressed their admiration and interest through different means of explorations and excavations. There have been various theories on how it was built, and what the purpose of it was, and some of them are really intriguing and interesting such. Some thought it was built as a solar-lunar calendar, some said that it had medical purposes for the giants that had built it, it was considered a ceremonial place, temple of veneration, a portal and lastly but not less important, there were some associations of Stonehenge to the aliens. The two specific theories on the Stonehenge’s importance will be discussed and summarized in this essay. First theory comes from an astronomical stand point interpreted by Mr. Chris Witcombe, and the second theory might sound unusual when said the Stonehenge represents the human vulva, and this theory is interpreted by Anthony Perks(PhD) and Darlene Bailey(BA).
...nations of his thought processes, it is clear that the Pardoner does not practice what he preaches. It is ambiguous, however, as to whether the Pardoner believes what he preaches, but just doesn’t follow his preaches or whether he doesn’t believe what he preaches at all. It is evident, though, that the Pardoner has an astute mind. He is highly effective in what he does. Although he exploits the church for his own personal designs, he succeeds at obtaining that which he pursues. The efficacy of his strategy is confirmed by Chaucer’s description of the Pardoner as being a “noble ecclesiastic” and as being unmatched in his trade . Thus amidst all of his flatteries, there exists a spark of genius that complements his minimal level of ethics. This intellectual finesse is the riverbed from which all of the products of his mind flow.
Over six million Jews were killed under Hitler’s power during the Holocaust. It was the end of World War 1 and Hitler’s anti-Semitism out of resentment for the Germans loss of World War 1 grew. He blamed the Jews for the problems their country was facing and wanted a way to change that.
The Holocaust was one of the most horrifying crimes against humanity. "Hitler, in an attempt to establish the pure Aryan race, decided that Jews, Poles, Soviet prisoners of war, Roma (Gypsies), and homosexuals amongst others were to be eliminated from the German population. One of his main methods of exterminating these “undesirables” was through the use of concentration and death camps. In January of 1941, Adolf Hitler and his top officials decided to make their “final solution” a reality. Their goal was to eliminate the Jews and the “impure” from the entire German population. Auschwitz was not only the largest concentration camp that carried out Hitler's “final solution,” but it was also the most extensive. It was comprised of three separate camps that encompassed approximately 25 square miles. Although millions of people came to Auschwitz, it is doubted that more than 120,000-150,000 ever lived there at any one time. (Encyclopedia of the Holocaust)
Stonehenge is located in Southern England on what is known as the Salisbury Plain. The structure looks different than it once did, however. Today, Stonehenge suffers the effects of time and pernicious acts by people. Originally, in the years after completion, the structure was made up of “several concentric circles of megaliths, very large stones.” (5) Stonehenge consists a circular layout of approximately one hundred megaliths. On the tops of them another flat stone was placed to make a continuous ring of horizontal stones. These structures are known as trilithons.
The name Stonehenge is believed to have been derived from words that mean either “circle of stones,” “hanging stones,” or “stone hinges.” (Wendy Mass 8) it was originally called stanhenge; stan, which means stone in OLD English, and henge, which means “to hang.” There are several theories as to t...
Stonehenge is a statue that had been placed on Wessex, England and was not known pre-cisely who built it or for what purpose it was built. As it was told in Caroline Malone and Nancy Stone Bernard’s Stonehenge book “the meaning of the name of Stonehenge is ‘hanging stones’ because people thought the stones were hanging from the uprights” (10). Stonehenge was de-clared as World Heritage Site by United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organiza-tion (UNESCO) (Malone, 8). Unfortunately Stonehenge was affected badly by negligent people and much of that bad effect are tourist erosion. Even though deterioration on surface of stones, many archeologists and historians made numerous researches about it. Today one of the facts that we gain is Stonehenge’s age. Thanks to the 21st century technology, we learned that Stonehenge is some 5.000 years old (Malone, 10).
There are now many conservation programs and measures. “A lot of people in agriculture here recognize that the programs implemented as a result of the Dust Bowl are having a really important effect on holding the soil in place,” ("When the Dust Settled") People in agriculture have listened to programs implemented since the Dust Bowl. They have changed
Hitler became chancellor of Germany and he did not like the Jewish people so he made death camps or most commonly known as concentration camps and him and his followers killed about 5,860,129 Jewish people.The Jewish people thrived at a population of approximately 9,796,840 million before the Holocaust. After the Holocaust there about 3,936,711 left. It was a terrible time for the Jewish people.Most people were killed in death camps or concentration camps.The camps were Auschwitz-Birkenau, Belzec, Chelmno, Majdanek, Buchenwald, Sachsenhausen, etc. There was also Einsatzgruppe a mobile killing squads that when around and murdered Jewish people. The prisoners in concentration camps were jews, gypsies, socialists, and homosexuals. There were 20,000 of these camps built and used during the holocaust. When Hitler became chancellor and the Nazis became in charge the Sturmabteilung ,Schutzstaffel , police, and local authorities built these camps so they could incarcerate opponents. The Schutzstaffel established bigger camps in Berlin, Munich, and Saxony. In 1934 the Schutzstaffel was the only organization that could establish and manage these concentration camps. Lichtenburg was an all female camp only.
Estimates are that at the turn of the twentieth century, over two million wild horses roamed free in the western United States. However, having no protection from their primary predator, man, by the 1970’s their numbers had dwindled to less than thirty thousand. In 1971, after a massive public uproar, Congress by a unanimous vote enacted the “Wild Free-Roaming Horse and Burro Act” (Act) that characterizes wild horses and burros as national treasures and provides for their protection. “Congress finds and declares that wild free-roaming horses and burros are living symbols of the historic and pioneer spirit of the West; that they contribute to the diversity of life forms within the Nation and enrich the lives of the American people; and that these horses and burros are fast disappearing from the American scene. It is the policy of Congress that wild free-roaming horses and burros shall be protected from capture, branding, harassment, or death; and to accomplish this they are to be considered in the area where presently found, as an integral part of the natural system of the public lands.”
Although people may never know the true origins of Stonehenge, the main reason that it is so popular is because of the mystery surrounding it. A UFO landing site? A memorial brought forth by sorcery? This famous landmark has gained tremendous fame over thousands of years by the lack of knowledge we have of it. The most sensible theories like the Druids building it for religious ceremonies or as a burial site have taken the attention away from the more far fetched ones. This is why Stonehenge is a truly fascinating subject, because it has not been truly decoded. Aldous Huxley gives a perfect parallel to the mystery of Stonehenge, “There are things known and there are things unknown, and in between are the doors of perception.”
Stonehenge is located near Salisbury, England and according to an archaeologist who has investigated Stonehenge close up, Mike Parker Pearson (2010) “...the new date for the raising of the sarsens [the large stones]...[is] between 2600 and 2480 B.C….” (p. 47). It consists of the large sarsen stones which are the ones that are in pictures and on postcards. Then there are smaller bluestones that are mixed in with the sarsens, Y and Z holes that form full circles around the sarsen stones, and Aubrey holes which form a circle around the entire structure. There is a large stone outside and a ways away from the circle called the heel stone. There are two station stones that stand to the side of the of the circle and over the Aubrey holes. They form a perfect rectangle with two barrows, or burial mounds, that are there.
The long-known theory of Stonehenge being built in astronomical alignment with the sun and moon is one believed and uphold by many to this day. The alignment includes the stone circle, the slaughter stone and heel stone, which point to the mid-summer sunrise and mid-winter sunset on each side. Though this has been criticised by researchers and proven that it is not in fact exactly aligned, many still gather to watch the mid-summer solstice and feel a powerful energy at this particular festival. This has changed people’s perspectives of the monument and put forth a view that it was built in such a way for the same reason, worship of the changing season, for ceremonies and sacred rituals as well as a place for magical healing. Due to the chemical
Stonich, S.C., (1989) The Dynamics of social Processes and environmental Destruction : A Central American Case Study. Journal of Population Development, 15(270).
Agriculture also leads to soil erosion, both through rainfall and wind. This soil can damage the aquatic ecosystems it ends up in, an...