Symbiosis is one of the most interesting concepts in biology. The German mycologist Heinrich Anton de Bary defined it as the living together of unlike organisms (Paracer & Ahmadijan, 2000). There are numerous symbiotic relationships in nature. However associations between plants and animals have always amused me. There is one particular symbiosis that interested me, which I got to learn a little about from a previously taken biology course. It is the strange symbiosis between figs and fig wasps. An overview of this symbiotic relationship is presented in this paper. Fig trees are one of the ancient trees native to the tropics. It belongs to the genus ficus, which is, consists of 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes, hemi epiphytes …show more content…
Active pollinators participate in a specific mode of collecting pollen from within the fig fruit and then transport it out. Passive pollination however occurs when the wasp does not change behavior in any way to collect pollen; instead the fig fruit produces enough pollen to cover the wasp in pollen prior to exiting the fig. In actively pollinated fig species pollen transfer entirely depends on wasp morphology and specialized pollinating behavior. Female wasps scratch out pollen and store it in specialized thoracic pollen packets (Galil & Snitzer-Pasternak, 1970). When wasps enters fig, they transfer pollen grains and oviposit at the same time in ovaries (Galil & Snitzer-Pasternak, 1970). Depending on what kind of pollinators it has, fig species differs in pollen production (Jander, Charlotte & Herre, 2010). Passively pollinated fig species produce numerous, large male flowers that release abundant pollen onto the wasps as they leave the fig to disperse. Therefore, in these fig species, trees invest considerable resources in producing abundant pollen. They do not rely on pollinators to conduct any special behavior (Jander, Charlotte & Herre, 2010). On the other side, in active pollination, the fig does not have to invest as much energy. Therefore they produce a smaller number of male flowers that are also smaller in size (Jander, Charlotte & Herre,
Many variations and species of plants can be found all around the world and in different habitats. These variations and characteristics are due to their adaptations to the natural habitat surrounding them. In three of many climatic zones, the arid, tropical and temperate zone, plants that vary greatly from each other are found in these locations. In this experiment, we’ll be observing the connection between the adaptations of the plants to their environment at the Fullerton Arboretum. The arboretum is a space containing numerous plants from different environments. The plants are carefully looked after and organized into their specific habitat. Therefore, we’ll be able to take a look at the plants within multiple
Columbus wrote the first known documentation of an epiphytic species. Martinus de la Cruz, an Aztec Indian physician, illustrated the first epiphyte (an orchid) in the Badianus Manuscript in 1552. Trade around the world by the 1770's included many exotic and tropical plants with epiphytic species among them. Orchids, ferns and others were valued by decorators and collectors (Benzing 1990). Scientific interest did not keep pace with trade interest. The scientific study of epiphytes has not been extensive when compared to the study of plants with other specializations, ie. carnivory. Within recent years, due to increased interest in rainforest preservation, an increase in epiphytic study and resulting literature has occurred.
In wild type culture of C-ferns, it is expected that there will be a high concentration of antheridiogen since the hermaphrodites are producing antheridiogen. The greater the population density of C-ferns, the higher the concentration of antheridiogen; hence a high percentage of male gametophytes in the wild type cultures.
The American chestnut which was once almost eliminated from existence in the late 1950's has once again emerged thanks to conservation efforts. Chestnut blight, a deadly fungus, has the ability to kill chestnut trees. However, some chestnut species in Asia have resistance to blight. As a result, a method of conservation has been through hybridizing American species with Asian species. Another method of conservation has been through hypovirulence strains in the infection is reduced. Independently, this hypovirulence method may be a reason why some American chestnuts are surviving despite being infested with chestnut blight. This issue remains important to both the timber industry, although that isn't why chestnuts are being restored, and certain ecological organizations including the Nature Conservancy.
As a result of these factors, the flora has adapted to these conditions in a variety of ways including their shape, leaf type, root system, and color. One of the most prominent adapt...
Many organisms have mutualistic relationships with other organisms. For example, plants and humans usually help each other. Humans breathe out carbon dioxide, and inhale oxygen, which helps them survive. Plants give off oxygen, and they take in carbon dioxide to survive. This means that plants and humans give each other a crucial ingredient to live. The sea anemone and the hermit crab are also mutual; as well as, shrimp and goby fish. Mutualism means a relationship between organisms in which both benefit. In literature, it is common to see mutualism between characters. Tuesdays with Morrie, The Mighty, and Of Mice and Men are some of the literary works in which mutualism can be observed.
Humans have long recognized that flowers are an indication of future fruits. Therefore it was vital for nomadic hunters to remember where in the wild they saw flowers. And further yet each type of flower produced a specific fruit. Thus fruits and flowers had something in common; the preference of one fruit meant the preference of a type of flower. Most often, as in modern times, the most healthy looking flower shows signs that it will produce quality fruit. The beauty of a flower told hunters that a nutritious fruits would ripen after the flowers bloomed. This concept explains how we have evolved toward preferring healthy looking flowers. But how does this explain the security of a plants reproduction? It is necessary to mention that plants not only produce fruits to stop herbivores from eating the plant, but in their own diabolic plan, plants found a new way to spread their seeds through fruits. Herbivores would eat the fruits an...
The year is 1943. In early August, a group of about 1,100 woman became members of the WASPs, (Women's Airforce Service Pilots). These women would take the piloting jobs of men so they could go out to war. In order to be test pilots the women needed guts, and a lot of them. They went through struggles and accomplishments to serve their country. In doing so, they changed the way that women were
Our livestock depend on bee-pollinated plants like grain. Poorly pollinated plants produce fewer fruits and seeds, leading to higher prices (New Agriculturist, n.d.). Some crops are entirely dependent on pollinators such as almonds and others are 90 percent dependent on blueberries and cherries (ABF, 2015). Bees give us honey and we use this honey in food, shampoo, and moisturizers (Mercola, 2015). Bees pollinate 70 out of our 100 major crops; that includes apples, cucumbers, pumpkins, and many more.
Pollen analysis is a technique which demands a high level of skill on the part of the excavator, scientist and interpreter to enable it to fulfil its potential. Collection of pollen samples can prove troublesome, the risk of cross-contamination is significant and efforts must be made to minimize the effect of any excavational bias. The number and ratio of pollen grains present in a sample can also be skewed by factors such as the orientation of the site and the nature of the pollen grains themselves, for example, trees such as pine produce much greater quantities of pollen than species such as oak and thus have a tendency to overrepresent themselves in the pollen record.
The Bombus genus is one of the largest genus for pollinators in the United States, with over 250 species known (Carvell, 2002). B. californicus is a species with a wide range, extending through all of California and even into parts of Nevada and Oregon (Soltz, 1987). This particular species is a generalist species; it feeds from many plants and inhabits the Oak Woodland Savanna (see Table 1) that is often found near grassland habitats. It is a ground nesting bee that lives in small colonies that have between 50 and 400 individuals (Cueva del Castillo et al., 2015).
Plant defences are those mechanisms employed by plants in response to herbivory and parasitism. According to Hanley et al. (2007), “the tissues of virtually all terrestrial, freshwater, and marine plants have qualities that to some degree reduce herbivory, including low nitrogen concentration, low moisture content, toxins or digestibility-reducing compounds”. The type of chemical defence may be species specific (Scott 2008). The defences that plants possess may be in the form of chemical production or in the form of physical defences such as thorns or spikes and even through reinforced, rigid leaves. “The compounds that are produced in response to herbivory can either have a direct effect on the attacker itself (e.g. toxins or digestibility reducers), or serve as indirect defenses by attracting the natural enemies of the herbivores” (Bezemer & van Dam 2005). This essay will focus on chemical plant defences and in particular the effects of terpenes, phenolics, nitrogen-based defences as well as allelopathy in plants.
Pollinators are very important to the environment because many plant species rely on reproduction to be carried out by pollination1. Bees are dependent on plants for pollen and nectar and in return, are the most common pollinator of plant species and around 90 percent of plants require pollination by an animal7. Bees are used in farming, both for pollinating crops and for producing honey, and the estimated value of bees to the United Kingdom is £400 million per year9. Plants are the primary producers in many food webs and, as so many are dependent on pollination in order to reproduce, a decline in pollinators would have a detrimental effect on whole ecosystems. Therefore, the declining numbers of pollinators, particularly bees, are a cause of concern because of the environmental knock-on effects.
The Venus Fly Trap, Dionaea muscipula, is a carnivorous plant native to the bogs and swamplands of North and South Carolina. It is an interesting plant and this research paper will be covering the adaptive significance in the insectivtory of the Venus Flytrap and how this evolved into an adaptation for obtaining nutrients in their nutrient poor habitat. How their prey is captured, digestion, lifespan, and vulnerabilities will also be discussed. Including what happens if something other than a bug used for nutrients triggers their traps, and what the actions that take place are when this happens. There is also a reason to believe that this species is at risk for extinction due to fire suppression and poaching.
A distinctive trait to the genus is that the fruit is inflorescence in the sense that inside a fig, there are a number of flowers and seeds that compose it (Kline 2011). Because of the layout, it is important that seed dispersal is biotic. The opening of the fig is called the ostiole and it is so small that only a fig wasp is able to enter and pollinate it. The sycamorus fig tree, as others from this genus, has two types of flowers. One type is called a monoecious flower and the other is a dioecious flower (Noort and Rasplus). Over the hundreds of fig trees in the ...