Part of the Neuron Affected, Inhibitory or Excitatory Potential
Changes and Ion Channels Affected by Psilocybin
Psilocybin belongs to the classification of drugs called
hallucinogens. Hallucinogens typically act by stimulating
serotonin receptors at different times or for longer durations
than serotonin itself would (Kalat 2004). When psilocybin enters
the brain, the enzyme alkaline breaks down one of its phosphate
groups through hydrolysis. It then becomes psilocin, an even
stronger hallucinogen (Psilocybin 2003). It is particularly
potent due to the position of its hydroxyl group (Jacobs 1984).
Psilocin is a postsynaptic serotonin receptor agonist. In other
words, its similar structure allows it to mimic serotonin,
fitting into some types of serotonin receptors and producing the
same effect as endogenous serotonin (Merriam Webster 2003).
Specifically, psilocin activates the 5HT2A and 5HT1A receptors.
Stimulation of 5HT1 receptors is associated with an inhibitory
response while stimulation of the 5HT2 receptors is associated
with an excitatory response. Soma of the serotonergic neurons
are located in the midline raphe nuclei of the pons and in the
medulla oblongata. Axons extend to the basal ganglia,
hypothalamus, limbic forebrain, parts of the cerebral cortex,
and to the spinal cord (Kruk and Pycock 1979). Functions
believed to be moderated by serotonin include sleep, mood,
arousal, control of motor activity, hunger, thermoregulation,
and some neuroendocrine control mechanisms in the hypothalamus.
(Powell 2004, Kruk and Pycock 1979).
One theory states that effects caused by psilocin result from
stimulation of receptors in the raphe nuclei. According to this
theory, the...
... middle of paper ...
...ocal Net Common Molecule. (2003) Reciprocal
Net Site Network.
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Rabin, Richard A., Regina, Meridith, and Doat, Mirielle J.C. 5-
HT2A Receptor-stimulated Phosphoinositide Hydrolysis in the
Stimulus Effects of Hallucinogens. (2001) Pharmacology,
Biochemistry and Behavior. Volume 72, 2002. (pp 29-37)
Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine
and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at
Buffalo, Buffalo, NY.
Vollenweider, Franz X, M.D., Vontobel, Peter, PhD., Hell,
Daniel, M.D., and Leenders, Klaus, M.D. (1998) 5HT Modulation of
Dopamine Release in Basal Ganglia in Psilocybin Induced
Psychosis in Man: A PET Study with [11C]raclopride.
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Psilocybin’s chemical structure is C12 H17 N2 O4 P. It has a ring configuration by the name of indole attached to an ethyl amine substituent. Indole’s are aromatic compounds that have a benzene ring attached to a pyrrole ring containing nitrogen. Psilocybin’s chemical structure is derived from an amino acid and tryptamine called trypthophan. It also has a visible structural resemblance with serotonin, a neurotransmitter responsible for “happiness”. Psilocybin is very soluble in water, insoluble in organic compounds and slightly soluble in methanol and ethanol. This due to the ...
As of February 2003 more than four-hundred thousand Darfuri citizens have been found slaughtered on the side of the streets of their home town. Prior to 2003, Darfur, Sudan has a population of six million people. In 2003, two rebel groups came to the conclusion of the government’s neglect in decision to rise against the government of Sudan. As a result, the Sudanese government unleashed the forces of Arab militias (also known as the Janjaweed). With blood on their hands, the Janjaweed have been the accused for the misplacing of many villages and people. As the war seems to expand, the Sudanese government seems to oppose any association with the Janjaweed. In spite of continuing a limited amount of humanitarian aid, many are still in contact with dreadful food shortages and disease. The U.N. (United Nations) has ventured in sending humanitarian aid repeatedly, but the Janjaweed have reused all help. Despite the ignorance of the Janjaweed, the U.N. is in the process of securing the comfort of all Darfur citizens, and not only for the foreigners, but for the road that lies ahead of Sudan as well (Reeves).
"The Genocide in Darfur and Its Consequences." By Kallie Szczepanski. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2014.
Psychedelics have always been a controversial subject in the world of drugs because they have the ability to alter one’s perception of reality. L.S.D, MDMA, and psilocybin are three of the main types of psychedelics on the drug market, all three of which are listed as schedule 1 by the DEA. A schedule 1 drug is considered to have a high addiction risk, has no medical value whatsoever, and is illegal to have in your possession. A schedule 2 drug is considered to have the potential for both medical purposes, and abuse. A schedule 3 drug is considered safe for medical use and can only be prescribed by a doctor. I however, believe that psychedelics should be reconsidered for at least schedule 2 as studies have shown an increase in the use of psychedelics in psychotherapy and can even help the terminally ill come to terms with their own deaths.
Author, Andrew Johns, in his journal, “Psychiatric Effects of Cannabis,” analyzes the dangers of the drug to human beings. John’s aims to find out the effects of the drug to its users, the rehabilitation process for addicts, and the subsequent damages caused by addiction. He adopts a resilient tone to encourage determination in fighting addiction and use of cannabis to his readers.
What is it that makes us human? Is it our actions, our sense of purpose, or our ability to keep our mind on as well as perform complex tasks? Is it that we analyze our own mental processes, as well as the processes of others? What exactly is a mental state, and what creates it? Is it a level of attentiveness, an impulse, or an emotional state? What is it that allows us to experience these things? The answers all lie within our brains.
From the time of hunters and gatherers, the some of the thing that has accompanied the human race is their brains. Human's intelligence and consciousness has evolved just as humans have evolved from early hominids to modern humans. Consciousness refers to an individual's awareness of their surroundings and everything that is going on around them. During the course of a lifetime, there are many instances where a shift in the quality and pattern of an individual's mental activity occurs. Altered states of consciousness includes the variable aspects of sleep, dreams, drug induced consciousness, and hypnosis.
Basic Physiology of a Neuron and How it Fires Describe the basic physiology of a neuron. Detail the manner in which neurons fire action potentials and how neurons communicate with one another across synapses. Outline the process of how an action potential occurs and how it propagates down an axon. Explain how chemical transmission occurs at synapses and how this allows neurons to activate or inhibit one another. Picture from "Answer to Neuron Structure" Neurons are the basic units of the brain.
... in the action of hallucinogens has provided a focal point for new studies. Is there a prototypic classical hallucinogen? Until we have the answers to such questions, we continue to seek out the complex relationship between humans and psychoactives.
"Summary of the Crisis in Darfur, Sudan." Stop the Genocide in Darfur. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Mar. 2014. .
This source was the third most reliable source. This article was the shortest out of the other three sources. This article is very accurate because it came from a database. Although it does not provide an author, it does give us the name of the contributor which gives the database authority. It is hard to know if the article has been updated recently because of the fact that it gives information up to 2011. Based on this article, we do not know if anything has occurred recently. The main purpose of this article is to educate the reader about what was happening in Darfur. Since it was from a database there were no personal opinions about the genocide in Darfur. The article was relevant to the topic because it gave information before the conflict, during, after, and many dates and important terms (“Mampilly”).
“Awaking on Friday morning, 20 June 1913, the South African Native found himself, not actually a slave, but a pariah in the land of his birth” (Gish 18). Desmond Tutu is one of the greatest rabble-rousers for peace that there ever was. He maintains huge political and religious influences even to this day. Most people in South Africa and many more countries hear his voice. His impact on fixing the apartheid system in South Africa was a major one. This apartheid system was very segregated towards whites and blacks in South Africa. Blacks were being forced to move to so-called “homelands.” The blacks had very little land to live with such many people. These people were being oppressed only because they had a different skin color then white people. Despite growing up in the poverty of South Arica, Desmond Tutu used his religious and political influences to help black South Africans that were being segregated by the government of South Africa.
In August of 1849, a balloon armed with bombs took flight. This was the first recorded use of attack drones. The Habsburg Austrian Empire launched 200 balloons into the sky and was sent to bomb the city of Venice to keep from starting a revolution.(Gale) Reconnaissance balloons were also flown during the US Civil War in an attempt to capture intelligence information. As time passed, technological advances were made. A new kind of drone was created, one that could be electronically controlled. (Gale) Now in 2014, these drones have developed into large, solar-powered aircrafts that have saved many soldiers on the ground. The U.S military has contracted the General Atomics Aeronautical Systems Company to produce the MQ-1 Predator and MQ-9 Reaper, both of which are useful as a surveillance and an intelligence-gathering too, and are used to deploy missiles that target and eliminate threats to U.S security.(Gale) Although these drones have proved useful, there are many anti-drone supporters that believe that these drones have caused more civilian causalities than they prevent and allow the U.S to escape the horrors of war.
In simple terms Public Corruption can be defined as the misuse of public office for private gain.Corruption is an outcome and reflection of a country’s economic,legal,cultural and political institutions. Transparency International(2005,2008) found that more than 65% of Indians had a first hand experience of paying bribes and nearly 45% used contacts to get job done.Institutionalised Corruption has long been prevalent in India.Big Business and individuals dictate bureaucratic norms by breaking law,paying off public servants just to gain access to elements of governance.