3. CHARACTERISTICS OF MYCOTOXINS 3.1. Main types of mycotoxins There are several classification of mycotoxins base on the field of study. Different researchers grouped mycotoxins according to their area of study and the toxicity levels. For example, the Cell biologist grouped mycotoxins into generic classes such as teratogens, mutagens, carcinogens, and allergens. While the clinicians classified mycotoxins base on the body organs they affect such as hepatotoxins, nephrotoxins, neurotoxins, immunotoxins, and others. The organic chemists classified mycotoxins base on their chemical structure including lactones, coumarins, and so forth. Base on their biosynthetic source mycotoxins are grouped by the biochemists as polyketides, amino acid-derived …show more content…
The most common route of exposure to mycotoxins is ingestion, but it may also involve dermal, respiratory, and parenteral routes, the last being associated with drug abuse (Peraica and Domijan, 2001). In general, animals are directly exposed to mycotoxins through the consumption of mouldy feedstuffs, eating contaminated foods, skin contact with mould infected substrates and inhalation of spore-borne toxins (Bennett and Klich, 2003a). Human exposure to mycotoxins may result from consumption of plant-derived foods that are contaminated with toxins, the carry-over of mycotoxins and their metabolites in animal products such as meat and eggs (Veldman, 2004) or exposure to air and dust containing toxins (Jarvis, 2002). Most importantly, the presence of potentially toxigenic fungi does not imply the presence of mycotoxins, nor does the finding of mycotoxins prove that a particular species is, or was, present. Toxin production is dependent on substrates, nutrient levels, moisture, pH, and temperature (Murtoniemi et al.,
As stated in Chan-Tack and Bartlett’s article Botulism, “The incidence of foodborne botulism is approximately 24 cases per year. The incidence of wound botulism is 3 cases per year. The incidence of infant botulism is 71 cases per year, with a mean age of 3 months.” (2010). In addition, in merely fifteen percent of the Clostridium botulinium outbreaks are the toxin type undetermined. The first case descriptions of botulism were reported by Dr. Justinus Kerner, a German physician, in 1822. He had conducted experiments on himself and laboratory animals, which gave him this case findings (Taillac, & Kim, 2010).
Botulinum toxin has a complex chemical composition and is found in various surprising locations. The toxin is derived from Clostridium botulinum, and according to P.K. and Anjana Nigam, the authors of the Indian Journal of Dermatology, it is “an anaerobic, gram-positive, spore-forming rod commonly found on plants, in soil, water and the intestinal tracts of animals.” H. Bradford Hawley M.D., the editor of Magill’s Medical Guide, states that these bacteria are vastly immune to high temperatures and can persevere through numerous methods used to eradicate it and to get rid of toxins for secure consumption of food and water. Since the bacteria can be found in such a diverse variety of commodities, which all can be ingested by humans, it is critical to find a way to disinfect our soil, meat, and produce against C. botulinum.
JIU-CONG, Z., LI, S.,& QING-HE, N. (2010). Botulism, where are we now?. Clinical Toxicology (15563650), 48(9), 867-879. doi: 103109/15563650.2010.535003
Aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1 and G2) are considered to be the group of mycotoxins of greatest concern from a global perspective. They are primarily produced by Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus and in rare cases, by A. nomius (Nida’M and Ahmad, 2010). AFB1, the most abundant and most toxic aflatoxin [(Prandini et al., 2009), is often referred to as the most potent naturally occurring carcinogen (Creppy, 2002). It is classified as a Group 1 human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (Liu and Wu, 2010). Lactating animals fed AFB1 contaminated diets will produce milk contaminated with its mono hydroxylated derivative AFM1 (Bognanno et al., 2006), known as 2B, possibly
Imagine being in a family that is expecting their first child. Articles in the newspaper are showing how the chances of miscarriages are increasing. As soon as anxiety starts to take over, a flip of a page in the newspaper changes everything. An article about a new drug called Diethylstilbestrol seems to be on the next page. Diethylstilbestrol, also known as DES, is a medicine that helps prevent women from having pregnancy complications including miscarriages. “This is amazing!” one may say, but do they really know the consequences of taking this new medication? Diethylstilbestrol was a huge turning point for most pregnant women in the early twentieth century; however, it had many underlying negative consequences that would later affect the mother and child with the word no one ever wants to hear; cancer.
Neurotoxins prevent or stop the function of neurons. Neurons are found amongst the brain, spinal cord and the nervous system, which expands through the rest of the body. The function of neuron cells is very vital to the body as their main job is to process and spread information. Thought the presentations we learned that neurotoxins could cause different effects ranging from non-harmful to deadly. During the presentations we also discussed how the communications of neurons were each group were given one topic such as: action potential, membrane potential, summation, propagation and how different neurotoxins were affected.
Antibiotics are powerful substances which are capable of inhibiting bacterial growth. Antibiotics can be consumed from any part of the body. Essentially there are two different types of antibiotics which perform different operations to the body. (Medical News, 1) The first discovered type is bactericidal, which not only inhibits but initially eliminates the bacterial or microbial organisms, this is done through exterminating the bacterium cell wall which furthermore erupts and causes the bacteria to be killed. The second type is bacteriostatic, as the name states. It aids to inhibit and limit bacterial growth. The antibiotic stops bacterial growth through stopping the process of protein synthesis, or bacterial reproduction. It is consumed to stop the growth of a microorganism permanently or temporarily. (Scientific American, 3) Patients consume antibiotics through the mouth. Antibiotics can also be directly injected into the body. Others can be applied on the infected area of the body, and physically cured or eliminated. (Medical News, 1)
ANTIBIOTICS :- Antibiotics are medicines that fight bacteria. Antibiotics can save lives, if used properly. Antibiotics either kill bacteria or keep them from multiplying. Antibiotics do not fight virus infections. For example: Cold Flu ANTIBIOTICS: Most coughs Sore throats (Exception: strep throats).
. Many doctors and patients are unaware that antibiotics are designed to treat bacterial infections, not viral infections (Antibiotic resistance, N.D.). Many bacteria within our bodies are not harmful at all, and some of them actually provide health benefits. The bacteria that are harmful are disease-causing bacteria, which generate sicknesses such as strep throat, the common cold, and ear infections (Get, 2013). Viruses are smaller than bacteria and require hosts, such as plants or animals, in order to proliferate (What, N.D.). Doctors play a vital role in administering antibiotics, for patients rely on their knowledge and expertise in order to receive proper medication for ailments throughout their lives. According to www.acponline.org, 190 million doses of antibiotics are administered every day. Among patients that do not reside in hospitals, doctors prescribe more than 133 million antibiotic programs every year. Of those 133 million programs, it is estimated that over 50 percent of them are unnecessarily prescribed because the doctor is prescribing them for viral infections such as common colds or simple coughs (Antibiotic resistance, N.D.). However, doctors are not the only ones to blame in regard to misuse of antibiotics because their patients are just as guilty when it comes to ignorance in respect to antibiotic usage. Many preventable factors have emerged because of irresponsibility of patients, including self-medication practices and the temptations of cheap, counterfeit drugs, all of which have aggravated drug resistance in the last 20 years (What, N.D.). Also, many patients are unaware of the dangers that can result from leaving medication behind because they don’t use it. It is extremely ill-advised to leave behind eve...
For many years we have become increasingly dependant on antibiotics to fight off the bacteria that cause diseases in our bodies. Many of the diseases these bacteria and microbes cause are infectious. For these reasons, it has been noticed that bacteria and other microbes are becoming increasingly resistant to the antibiotics prescribed to sick people. Many doctors prescribe antibiotics for common illnesses, yet other medicines such as home remedies and homeopathy could be used instead. As a result, we are using antibiotics too often, as many sources claim we should only be using them once every three years.”Bacteria have shown a remarkable ability to endure and adapt to their environment including the development of different mechanisms of resistance to most old and new antimicrobial agents”. Because of the frequent prescription, the bacteria and microbes that cause these illnesses are exposed to the same type of antibiotics frequently, thus they are able to adapt and build up resilience against these antibiotics. “Bacteria have developed resistance to all different classes of antibiotics discovered to date” . This is a major problem as we rely so heavily on antibiotics to treat serious illnesses that we are running out of options to treat them with. The prescribing of antibiotics for illnesses that are not life-threatening are now resulting in fewer solutions to cure people affected by diseases that can be fatal.
The advancement in chemical technology with these improved pesticides has created improvements in the public health as well. From this, perhaps, we have become careless in our use and control of them. While there are many positive points, there are also extreme risks involved in using th...
Foodborne diseases are among the most widespread public health problems. Yet only a small proportion of these illnesses come to the notice of health services, and even fewer are investigated. In developing countries even fewer cases are counted, primarily because of poverty and lack of resources for food safety management and food control services. In spite of underreporting, increases in foodborne diseases in many parts of the world and the emergence of new or newly recognized foodborne problems have been identified (Tauxe, 2002).
Peroxisomes, or microbodies, are one of the many organelles found within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell. Similar to the lysosome, it is an enzyme containing vesicle, 0.1-1.5 um in diameter, bound by a single lipid bilayer membrane. However, despite the similarities to the lysosome, the peroxisome has significant differences which allow it to carry out its very important functions within the cell. For example, unlike lysosomes it contains oxidases instead of hydrolases which in turn help it with its ability to break down substances. It was previously thought that peroxisomes weren’t important to a cells function but new studies show just how significant the correct functioning of peroxisomes in cells is.
Microbes are microscopic life forms, usually too small to be seen by the naked eye. Although many microbes are single-celled, there are also numerous multi-cellular organisms. The human body has 10-100 trillion microbes living on it, making it one giant super-organism. Since the first link between microbes and diseases was made, people have been advised to wash their hands. Scientists, however, have recently started to investigate more closely how the microbes that call the human body home affect our health. While some microbes cause disease, others are more beneficial, working with our bodies in many subtle ways.