Masonry Structures
Masonry is used to build masonry walls, which is a vertical structure, thin in proportion to its length and height that serves to enclose or divide a space and support other element. Masonry is one of oldest materials o construction.
Masonry walls can be divided into two types walls based on the, their location.
External Walls – Load Bearing Walls
Load bearing walls are those exposed to the external environment on at least one side.
Internal Walls - Non Load Bearing Walls
This type as in a wall that divides two adjacent rooms, have both side exposed to the internal or environment.
Based on structural requirements, walls can be divided two types,
Load Bearing
Load bearing are also called structural walls, are those
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Disadvantage of English Bond,
• Penetration of damp through transverse joins.
• Appearance not as good as Flemish bond.
02. Flemish Bond
There are two type of Flemish bond are used.
Double Flemish bond
The headers and stretchers alternate in each course. The lap is produced by placing a queen-closer next to the quoin-header in every course. Flemish bond are weaker than English bond.
Single Flemish bond
• Single Flemish bond is a species of bond in which,
• Placement of double Flemish bond on the face of the walls.
• The rest of the wall is built in English bond.
• Used for walls requiring a good appearance and strength.
• Not employed for wall less than one and a half brick thick. Advantages of Flemish Bond
• It is highly economical
• Walls one brick in thickness are easier to produce a fair face on both sides in Flemish bond than English bond.
• The appearance of Flemish bond is more appealing to eye than that of English bond.
03. Stretcher Bond
Brick are laid in stretchers, as in the figure below. It is used in walls of half-brick in thickness.
Due to its constant occurrence in the last position it is also called chimney
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Concrete is Artificial Stone obtained by mixing cement, sand and aggregates with water. Fresh concrete can be molded into almost any shape which is an inherent advantage over other materials.
2.0 Formwork
Formwork is a model including all supporting structure, used shape and support the concrete until it attains sufficient strength to carry its own weight. It should be possible of carrying all imposed dead and live load apart from its own weight.
As concrete is plastic material in Green State it has to kept in enclosure till its harden. This enclosure is known as ‘ Formwork or Shuttering’.
Condition of the Formwork is the easiest and most obvious ways of judging a concrete job is satisfactory or not by its appearance. The formwork and the way its made and used play a greater role in the finished appearance than anything else.
It is made from different materials by skill carpenters. Formwork is commonly made of Steel and Timber.
Formwork has been in use since the beginning of concrete construction. Modern material such as steel, plastic, Aluminium and fiberglass are used in formwork.
Qualities of Formwork
It should be water tight and strong.
It can be reusable.
It contact surface should be uniform.
It should be according to the size of
Construction of external and internal load bearing masonry walls up to Damp Proof Course (DPC) level.
Walls are one of man’s oldest defenses; physical barriers that are erected to keep people out, or, in some cases, to keep them in. Walls are physical fortifications that create tension and distain among people on both sides. This is what the Berlin Wall, or der Mauer in German, was; a physical barrier created in Berlin, Germany during the Cold War. It was created by the East Germans in an attempt to stop East German citizens from immigrating to Western Germany. However, the Berlin wall was a crude attempt to separate the political and social variances in Germany during the Cold War, because, while it created a physical barrier, it still was unable separate people in an ethic manor.
If you are a homeowner, you may be aware that not all walls are built alike. If you have ever observed the building process, you are even more likely to be aware of this fact. A growing trend in the construction industry is to build with “sandwich walls.” You might even find that your current or future home was constructed with this kind of wall.
• Roman arch - until this invention developers can only use wooden materials. Of course, these methods is very limited and restricted in accordance with the architecture. Roman arch is built as a semi-circle so that each brick rests on its neighbours and thus to stabilize the bow and lay off her other
There can be many examples of crenellations including walls, buildings, rampart, forts, and bulwark, but they must have gaps along the top. Crenellations are always designed with separations and splits, they are never connected, joint or a flat wall, (See Figure 1). Crenellations and Crenulations
The best wall systems are highly resistant to water, wind, mechanical damage, and vermin entry. They are reasonably priced, easy to install, and low maintenance, have great cosmetic appeal, and provide good security. They also provide thermal insulation and have a long life expectancy. Most sidings do only some of these things well. There are no perfect siding materials.
In many of the chapters with the walls, we learn that what is shown, doesn’t have any real meaning. We learn that the purpose of the walls are mostly to distract civilians from thinking in order to protect their fragmented society.
Mycenaean sites employed Cyclopean masonry as the means of building their fortification walls. Cyclopean masonry was used at all of the fortified Mycenaean sites and it is built by using large flat-surfaced blocks with smaller stones fitted in the cracks (Dickinson, 1994). The walls would have two faces and the space would then be filled with rubble. It is believed the fortification walls were not truly meant to fortify a citadel, but were a means of displaying the city’s wealth (Loader, 1995). According to Loader (1995) Cyclopean masonry was a distinct style of Greece. The use of corbelled vaults was also common. The Mycenaeans did not know the principle of the true arch so they stacked blocks on top of one another and pushed the ends of both sides in to create a sort of vault before creating a smooth interior surface. This method requires heavy weight on the backs of the blocks used to make the vault to avoid a collapse.
Structures were built with a technique called “ashlar.” Stones are cut to fit together without mortar.
In this report, we will introduce and illustrate on precast concrete, pre-stressed concrete, ready-mix concrete, reinforced concrete, terrazzo and Urbanite in details.
Opus caementicium or Roman concrete is a synthetic construction substance that’s composed of an aggregate, a binding agent, and water. In Rome’s case, as discovered by UC Berkley with the extensive analysis of a sample of Roman concrete taken from a breakwater in Italy’s Pozzuoli Bay it was developed by using lime and volcanic rock which formed a mortar, the mortar and volcanic rock were then packed into wooden forms and when seawater was added a chemical reaction occurred, bonding everything together to create concrete (History, 2013). It is uncertain when Roman concrete was developed, but it was clearly in widespread and customary use from about 150 BC; some scholars believe it was developed a century before that.
In ancient times, Kings used great walls to defend themselves from invaders. But now, who is it we are trying to defend ourselves from? Walls are great for homes, or for defending a castle and all those who live inside of it, but unfortunately, they serve a new purpose now. Outside of the home, walls can be seen cutting people off from each other or can play a great role in someone's personal depression. Walls are made to separate people, and today they are used to keep people in and bring fear to those whom wish to leave, or those who want the help the ones trapped inside.
Yet the general application of the wall has been used primarily to either wall something out, or to keep something walled in. The earliest walls were made with a human skill called stone masonry which is the skilled stacking of stones to form a cohesive structure. Walls as just a singular structure and not to be considered as part of an enclosed building with a roof, is a general subject that changes details from area to area. Walls the keep things in have generally been used as a way to border up local activities within a certain amount of space. Some more obvious examples of walls as barriers to keep things within the walls include; prisons, walled-in private communities, farm fences, and other examples where people want to maintain their own private space. Walls that can do the exact opposite of keeping substance inside are meant to be obstructions that keep other things outside from a space. National and private borders are an example of walling out unwanted factors. Security fences, walls as defensive locations, and walls simply placed for the sole purpose of obstruction are effective obstacles that humans have been building for centuries.
The usage of concrete was explored by the Early Christian and Roman architects but fell out of use throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance period. The material was only fully explored again in the later half of the 19th century but only for mundane purposes where the material was cheap, easy to work with, and versatile, but most importantly it’s fireproof characteristic. In 1870, the idea of reinforcing the concrete was born; steel rods were to be inserted to increase its strength. Taking this principle, Ernest Ransome (America) and Francois Hennebique (France) both developed frame systems. From this, open plan workspaces with large windows were created and it was proved to be well accommodated where fire had previously been a danger. Hennebique’s system used slim vertical posts, thin parallel beams on brackets and floor slabs; this resulted somewhat like a timber frame. Concrete was one of the most flexible materials and one with a least determining form. Concrete relied on its mould and the intelligence of its designer to give it aesthetic qualities for one to appreciate it. This became much more obvious when the architects of the last 19th century attempted to discover a style based on this material.
Most people don’t know the difference from a hanging wall and footwall. A footwall is the underlying block of a fault having an inclined fault plane. And a hanging wall is the mass of rock overlying a mineral deposit in a mine. (add citation from the book)