There exist many theories and studies on the formation and evolution of language. FOXP, Forkhead box protein, is generally responsible for the development of speech and language for humans and other mammals and species as well. The purpose for this paper is to address the function, discovery, and evolution of the FOXP2 gene. Function Although it is usually associated with language, FOXP2 expressions is not limited to brain regions (Preuss,2012.pg.10711). FOXP2 is a protein that, “is expressed in the perisylvian cortical region, the striatum, cortex of the frontal and occipital pole, thalamus, cerebellum, brainstem, and a wide variety of tissues other than the brain” (Preuss,2012. pg.10711). Its actual location of the gene is on chromosome …show more content…
Pg.2124). The discovery of the FOXP2 gene was found in an English family named KE, who were identified with a speech defect, that was inherited in three generations; “the defect followed a pattern consistent with an autosomal dominant mutation,” and was portrayed in both, male and female, family members (Preuss, 2012. Pg. 10711). The affected family members exhibited dysfluent, often simplified, speech, with difficulty constructing grammatical sentences (Preuss, 2012. Pg. 10711). The communal mutation in the marked members of the KE family was able to be recognized, “by screening the coding regions of FOXP2 with restriction-fragment mapping and direct sequencing and resulted to be an argenine-to- histidine substitution at position 533”(Preuss, 2012. Pg.10711). FOXP2 was the first gene casually related to a fairly specific speech and language phenotype, called developmental verbal dyspraxia (Scharff & Petri, 2011. Pg.2128). “Different mutations of FOXP2 give rise to slightly different development processes in the cerebral areas in which the genes expressed… this could be due to their effects on language- related endophenotypes” (Benitez- Burraco, 2012. Pg. 226). The main pathology linked with the FOXP2 mutation appears to be located in the basal ganglia; …show more content…
As one grows older, we start forming, or try to form, these sounds and gestures into words. Human communication can be verbal, using words or non-verbal, such as cries, sighs, laughter, and gestures. During the evolution of vocal learners, once the striatum got connected to other regions necessary for vocal learning to occur, FOXP2 mutated in humans to become human specific and this might have affected neural transmission (Scharff & Petri, 2011. Pg. 2134). “FOXP2 is among the genes likely to have undergone positive selection in human evolution, based on the ratio of non-synonymous to synonymous nucleotide changes in genes for which sequence information was available for humans, chimpanzees, and other species” (Preuss, 2012. Pg. 10712). “FOXP2 transcription factor and the regulatory molecular network that it interacts with may be part of a molecular toolkit that is essential for sensory-guided motor learning in cortico-striatal and cortico-cerebral circuits in humans, mice and songbirds and maybe even invertebrates” (Scharff & Petri, 2011. Pg. 2125). The protein has been studied with the vocals of songbirds, mice, and language between chimpanzees to further understand the function of FOXP2 in humans. This gene undergoes an alternative from of maturation in all species examined to date, and because of this, it gives rise to different protein isoforms which seem to play different
Percy, A. K. (1999). Inherited neurodegenerative disease: The evolution of our thinking. Journal of Child Neurology, 14(4), 256-62. Retrieved from
In Lucky Man: A Memoir by Michael J. Fox, Fox uses his naturally comedic perspective to show the reader how he has dealt with Parkinson’s Disease in a positive light. Fox has shown the reader the challenges that come with such a disease and the fact that Fox has done so much in such a short period of time inspires me. The goal of COSI 109 is to help students better understand communication disorders and this book most certainly accomplishes that.
Primates and their behavior are used by scientists to estimate the capacities of human ancestors. Since humans and numerous primate species employ vocalizations as their primary means of communication, the vocal aspect of primate behavior has been a principal focus of studies exploring the origins of human language. Studies indicate that in spite of important differences, primate vocalizations exhibit some key features that characterize human language. However, some critical aspects of human speech, such as vocal plasticity, are missing in primate language (Fedurek and
Wood, Frank B., and Elena L. Grigorenko. “Emerging Issues in the Genetics of Dyslexia: A
Attempts have been made to been further categorize CDC into subtypes. Verification evidence appears to be somewhat questionable. Nevertheless, Appleford School in Wiltshire, England issued a fact sheet listing six commonly recognized forms of developmental dyspraxia: (1) Ideomotor: difficulty executing a motor task; (2) I...
Researching FOXP2 and its environmental interface is unravelling the basis of language’s enormous power. But in beginning to demystify the language phenotype’s enigmas, research poses even more questions. Among them, where does FOXP2 fit within such a polygenic phenotype? What is the biological basis between gene expression and environmental contexts in human language? Yet in this research, we begin to sense the elaborate structure of vast genetic repertoire and marvelous cognitive capacity, the evolutionary preeminence of a phenotype that has produced, to quote Darwin, “from so simple a beginning, endless forms most beautiful.”
The Phonological Deficit and Magnocellular theory are two of the most dominant theories in dyslexic research. Various theories have been suggested to explain the nature and origin of dyslexia, however, they often served as additional support for either the phonological or magnocellular theories. The Double Deficit theory suggested that dyslexic symptoms were the result of speed-processing (7). The Genomic theory posed that dyslexia was a highly heritable disorder that can be localized to a specific genetic component, Finally, the Cerebellar Deficit theory suggested that dyslexia was the result of an abnormal cerebellum exist (2). With the constant debate of the biological nature versus the cognitive natur...
The purpose of this paper to examine the evolution of the human brain that distinguishes them from other species based on the traits that humans possess: such as language, emotional complexity and consciousness. The significance of traits are due to adaptations in humans to promote the survival of our ancestors. Professor Hamilton (2012) discusses that the evolution of the human brain starts with the idea of the Triune brain, proposed by MacLean, whereby the human brain is made up of three parts: Reptilian, Paleo-mammalian, and Neo-mammalian. Animals with the neo-mammalian brain have a more complex brain compared to the other parts, since this is where the neocortex evolved. Humans essentially have this higher brain function which is responsible for our ability to think, make decisions, promote agency, and the ability to relate with each other. This concept fits into the evolutionary process since it shows how the complex the brain has become through evolutionary processes. In essence, as humans, we “have a rich, evidence-based understanding of our behavior that can lead us to plan to be ‘better’ or ‘more successful’ people” according to Professor Hamilton (2012). Thus, shows how evolution plays a significance in understanding human behavior and comparing humans with other species.
Neuronal plasticity found in infants, and the learning process has been of keen interest to neurobiologists for some time. How does the brain develop and attain the skills we need as one grows is fascinating. It is commonly understood that a crying infant can only be consoled by his/her mother, and is able to recognize her voice over the voice of a stranger. A number of studies have also been done on the distinct reaction of infants to sounds of their own language versus a foreign language, familiar melodies or fragments of stories they may have heard repeatedly during the fetus stage (Partanen et. al, 2013). However, these studies relied heavily on the infant’s reactions, which bared little credibility (Skwarecki, 2013). One research team developed a technique to show that infants actually develop memory of the sounds they hear while in the womb, and are able to recognize the similar sounds at the time of birth. The team was able to trace changes in brain activity in new born infants, and thus provided quantitative evidence that memory forms before birth (Partanen et. al, 2013). This paper begins by examining the literature that identifies associations between MMR used as a tool to measure auditory input and Exposure to Psuedoword and how its varations create memory traces.
Kuhl, P. (2007). Is speech learning 'gated' by the social brain?. Developmental Science, 10(1), 110-120.
Stuttering is a disorder of oral communication and it is characterized by disruptions in the production of speech sounds, also called "disfluencies" (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2014). It usually emerges in childhood and affects around 5% of the population (Guitar, 2006), even though there is some variation in the incidence of stuttering in different studies. During infancy, it is common for children to present dysfluency because of the complex process of language acquisition and development. These disfluencies are normal and tend to disappear in 80% of the children, however for some it may evolve into a chronic state that is called developmental stuttering. Stuttering can also occur in two other circumstances, from injuries, which is called acquired or neurogenic stuttering and another one, involving psychological aspects (Oliveira et. al., 2012). Perkins, Kent and Curlee (1991) focused on the theories to explain the possible causes of disfluency and theorized that speech disruption and time pressure are the two important variables that may account for the stuttered dysfluency.
Ongoing research has tried to pinpoint exact reasons as to why there is speech impairment for those with aphasia and other language disorders. Most theories suggest genetic and environmental implications. Is the speech disability some sort of defect from within the brain, or does the disability develop as a result of influence from your surroundings and lack of nurture from others?
... (p. 116). In her article, “Babies Prove Sound Learners,” Sohn (2008), states, “Such studies show that, up to about 6 months of age, babies can recognize all the sounds that make up all the languages in the world” (para.24). B.K. Skinner suggest that the materialization of language is the result of imitation and reinforcement. According to Craig and Dunn (2010), “Language development is linked to cognitive development that, in turn, depends on the development of the brain, on physical and perceptual abilities, and on experiences. Biological and social factors also jointly influence the early development of emotion and personality” (p. 117). In her article, A natural history of early language experience. Hart (2000), states, “Talking is important for children, because complexity of what children say influences the complexity of other people’s response” (para. 1).
In the last few decades, the notion of language and brain has been highlighted in different scientific fields such as: neurology, cognitive science, linguistics biology, technology and finally education.