Random access memory is an essential resource required by the computational hardware. As the processor speed has attained GHz clock frequency, memory throughput can be a bottleneck to achieve high performance. DRAM can deliver a reasonable solution for such data storage. Typical computational system consists of multiple hardware modules that perform different operations on the data. These modules attempt to access the data concurrently. This leads to a requisite for a memory controller that arbitrates amid requests queried by different modules and exploits maximum throughput. The memory controller interfaces DRAM and other subsystems. Hence it manages the data into and out of memory. The access latency or access speed solely depends on the implementation of memory controller. The work concentrates on the relative study of two memory controllers viz., SDRAM and DDR SDRAM controller. The study comprises area, power and timing analysis of the both. Synopsys Design Compiler tool is used to obtain the necessary results.
Index Terms—SDRAM, DDR, ASIC, Latency.
I. INTRODUCTION
Any computational hardware or commonly computer system requires a minimum storage. The storage requirement can be fulfilled by two different classes of memories viz., Static RAM (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM). A flip-flop is used in SRAM to retain the information. A single bit SRAM cell is made of 6 transistors and stores the information as a logic level in a cross connection of transistors. Benefits of SRAM are no refresh mechanism, low power consumption and no address multiplexing. Hence making it suitable for higher levels of the memory pyramid where memory must be quick, such as in scratchpads. SRAM has drawback of low memory density and expensive. When there is...
... middle of paper ...
...ecks and a high on the sys_dly_200us indicates the end of clock stabilization delay. The initialization sequence initiates immediately after the conclusion of clock/power stabilization and then the INIT_FSM will change its state from i_IDLE to i_NOP state. The initialization FSM will switch from the i_NOP state to the i_PRE state on the next clock cycle.
In the i_PRE state, the main control module generates the PRECHARGE command and this command is applied to all the banks in the device. After the PRECHARGE command, INIT_FSM will switch to the next state. The next state in the design of initialization FSM is two AUTO REFRESH commands. These commands will refresh the DRAM memory. After the two refresh cycles, the initialization FSM will shift to i_MRS state. In this state LOAD MODE REGISTER command is generated to configure the SDRAM to a specific mode of operation.
Memory (ROM) – Read only memory is memory that cannot be changed. It retains its memory even when the computers power is off. Example; Read only memory stores the instructions for the computer to turn on again.
Mobile devices will benefit from MRAM as it has less power demands, allowing for much longer uses on a single charge. Further, MRAM’s durability and low power requirements make it ideal for defense and aerospace technologies as well as for the primary data storage technology for satellites. NVE Corp. has patents on advanced MRAM designs which include vertical transport MRAM, magnetothermal MRAM, and spin-momentum transfer MRAM. These advanced designs aim to resolve the current hindrances of MRAM technology; mainly, lowering manufacturing costs while increasing memory density. Due to MRAM’s more expensive production costs and larger relative size than DRAM and Flash RAM, they are slowly being integrated into electronic devices.
2. Battle Management, Command, Control, and Communications (BM/C3): The BM/C3 component is divided into two main parts. First, the Command and Control (BM/C2) system controls the overall NMD system. Information from sensors is forwarded to the BM/C2, which processes the data and determines the targets for the GBI to intercept. Second, the In-Flight Interceptor Communications System (IFICS) is a network of ground systems that relay communications to the GBI while in flight to guide it to the incoming warhead.
• Wait = It holds devices running for a certain amount of time. For example – talkto “motora, on, wait 100, off.
On average, the processor spends 56%, 73%, 83% and 71% of the run time in P1-C1-P3-C1 states for SYSmark 3D Modeling, E-Learning, Office Productivity and Video Creation and on an average, it spends 73%, 81%, 90% and 84% of run time in P1-P3 states respectively. As we discussed in the earlier section that the process technology T1 that exhibits lower Pleak at lower VDD and Fmax ranges will lead lower total power consumption in exchange for higher Pleak at Fmax > FmaxTDP that can rarely happen for processors running multiple applications
In the final chapter of The Impossible Knife of Memory, the main character of the book, Hayley begins it off talking about being in a fairytale. If this was her fairytale, this chapter would be her happily ever after. Before this chapter of the book, her life had been disorganized frequently because of her father’s disorder. Her father, Andy Kincain, a war veteran, has PTSD. Also known as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder; this disorder is caused by seeing or experiencing a very intense, and terrifying event. In Andy’s case, the war was what caused his condition.
of as an inner ear. It is now thought to be made up of two components
Have you ever experienced an event that was so significant to you that you felt as if your memory was taking a photograph, keeping the memory implanted in your brain for the rest of your life? This is a prime example of flashbulb memory. Flashbulb memory is a term that pertains to a person’s memory of hearing about extremely shocking events (Goldstein, 2011, p. 209). Flashbulb memory is not the memory for the event itself, but it’s the memory of how the person heard about the specific event (Goldstein, 2011, p. 209). This means that a flashbulb memory includes where you were and what you were doing when you found out about a tragic event (Goldstein, 2011, p. 209). Some key attributes of flashbulb memories are that they are both remembered for long periods of time and are exceedingly vivid (Goldstein, 2011, p. 209). A great way to describe flashbulb memories is to compare them to a photo that never fades, proving how relevant these memories are to those who have them (Goldstein, 2011, p. 209).
The EEPROM chip can store up to one kilobytes of data and is divided into 64 words with 16 bits each. Some memory is inaccessible or reserved for later us...
Throughout its history, Intel has centered its strategy on the tenets of technological leadership and innovation (Burgelman, 1994). Intel established its reputation for taking calculated risks early on in 1969 by pioneering the metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) processing technology. This new process technology enabled Intel to increase the number of circuits while simultaneously being able to reduce the cost-per-bit by tenfold. In 1970, Intel once again led the way with the introduction of the world’s first DRAM. While other companies had designed functioning DRAMs, they had failed to develop a process technology that would allow manufacturing of the devices to be commercially viable. By 1972, unit sales for the 1103, Intel’s original DRAM, had accounted for over 90% of the company’s $23.4 million revenue (Cogan & Burgelman, 2004).
According to Sternberg (1999), memory is the extraction of past experiences for information to be used in the present. The retrieval of memory is essential in every aspect of daily life, whether it is for academics, work or social purposes. However, many often take memory for granted and assume that it can be relied on because of how realistic it appears in the mind. This form of memory is also known as flashbulb memory. (Brown and Kulik, 1977). The question of whether our memory is reliably accurate has been shown to have implications in providing precise details of past events. (The British Psychological Association, 2011). In this essay, I would put forth arguments that human memory, in fact, is not completely reliable in providing accurate depictions of our past experiences. Evidence can be seen in the following two studies that support these arguments by examining episodic memory in humans. The first study is by Loftus and Pickrell (1995) who found that memory can be modified by suggestions. The second study is by Naveh-Benjamin and Craik (1995) who found that there is a predisposition for memory to decline with increasing age.
The Von Neumann bottleneck is a limitation on material or data caused by the standard personal computer architecture. Earlier computers were fed programs and data for processing while they were running. Von Neumann created the idea behind the stored program computer, our current standard model. In the Von Neumann architecture, programs and data are detained or held in memory, the processor and memory are separate consequently data moves between the two. In that configuration, latency or dormancy is unavoidable. In recent years, processor speeds have increased considerably. Memory enhancements, in contrast, have mostly been in size or volume. This enhancement gives it the ability to store more data in less space; instead of focusing on transfer rates. As the speeds have increased, the processors now have spent an increasing amount of time idle, waiting for data to be fetched from the memory. All in all, No matter how fast or powerful a...
A processor is the chip inside a computer which carries out of the functions of the computer at various speeds. There are many processors on the market today. The two most well known companies that make processors are Intel and AMD. Intel produces the Pentium chip, with the most recent version of the Pentium chip being the Pentium 3. Intel also produces the Celeron processor (Intel processors). AMD produces the Athlon processor and the Duron processor (AMD presents).
Choosing a career is very important in a person’s life. Over the past two decades, many professions have change significantly with the influx of technological developments. One needs to think about the things that interest them and what kind of lifestyle they want to have. Some things a person should think about are what qualifications are needed, what type of training is necessary, and the future need of the career they choose. Some other things to consider would be how much money they will make, what is the probability of advancement, and does the career satisfy their need for an enjoyable life.
There are four types of memory. These are the RAM, ROM, EEPROM and the Bootstrap loader. The RAM, also known as Random Access Memory, is the temporary space where the processor places the data while it is being used. This allows the computer to find the information that is being requested quickly without having to search the hard drive space. Once the information has been processed, and stored onto a permanent storage device, it is cleared out of the RAM. The RAM also houses the operating system while in