1) Metallurgical Origins in Africa
Introduction
The study of metallurgy in Africa has been dominated by a concern with origins and antiquity. Some Anthropologists believe that African metallurgy was an early, independent invention, while others believe that it was an innovation, which came relatively late, and was a product of diffusion. With these two hypotheses as our only reference points, we are limited in our knowledge of metallurgy as well as its role in the lives of African people. Anthropologists often find themselves in the predicament of being presented with a small number of precedent theories, which shape and direct further studies.
Diffusionism
J.O. Vogel, in an article published in the Encyclopedia of Precolonial Africa (1991) entitled “Copper Metallurgy,” took the diffusionist theory of African metallurgy as a given, stating that “The ultimate source of sub-Saharan metallurgy has not been conclusively identified, but among the most likely source areas are Carthage or southern Morocco via Berber traders crossing the Sahara.” (Vogel, 1997: 125) This author was working within the framework of diffusionist ideas, leaving little room for alternate theories. James Woodhouse, however, a proponent of Indigenism, discusses the logistics of this theory, citing references that suggest that smelting in Carthage only appeared in the early first millennium B.C., making diffusion into Nigeria, and lands further south, difficult in such a short time, if not impossible. More explicitly, Vogel states that “Copper metallurgy was invented in Eurasia, and began before 6000 B.C,” (Vogel, 1997: 125) and places the first evidences of African smelting between 900 and 300 B.C. (Vogel, 1997: 126). Without any specific physical evidence cited to this effect, the argument lacks a certain amount of credibility.
Another model, which is inherent of diffusionist theory, is that of “progressive development.” It seems to be a trend in much of Western thought that societies must undergo certain stages of development to qualify as civilizations. The theory proposes that when faced with a new technology, people will automatically embrace it in order to “better” themselves, and to move up on the ladder of civilization. Proponents of the progressive development theory see any deviation from this pattern as problematic and anomalous. This is shown in the terminology used by certain anthropologists when describing such deviations. In the case of African metallurgy, any society, which does not produce metals, or does not embrace the technology immediately, is seen as facing some sort of “barrier.
“Caravans of Gold”, a video by Basil Davison discovers and highlights numerous assets about gold and its prominent role in Africa. Additionally, the video examines some of the past and influential empires and their achievements. Davison discusses the history of Africa before the arrival of Europeans to demonstrate how Africa was already a well-flourished continent. “Caravans of Gold” also discusses many topics such as the Mali Empire, trading systems, and the use of gold which shows the audience of the video of how Africa was. In the long run, the aim of the video is to give the audience of the video an understanding of how the empires in Africa used its resource of gold to flourish.
Although the !Kung San of southern Africa differ greatly from the people in the west African nation of Mali, both areas share similar problems. Both suffer from diseases, illnesses, malnutrition, and having to adapt to the ever changing and advancing cultures around them. What I found to be the most significant problem that is shared between both areas is that the people suffered from a lack of education. In the book Dancing Skeletons: Life and Death in West Africa by Katherine A. Dettwyler, there is a lack of education in proper nutritional practices, taking care of children and newborns, and basic medical knowledge and practices. The Dobe Ju/’hoansi have recently started putting in schools to help children receive an education to help them have better success with the surrounding peoples and culture, but there is a lack of attendance in these schools. There are also many education issues in proper sexual practices that would help stop the spread of HIV and AIDS, in a place in the world were theses illnesses are at surprisingly high levels.
I first read Jared Diamond's Guns, Germs, and Steel in the Fall 2003 based on a recommendation from a friend. Many chapters of the book are truly fascinating, but I had criticisms of the book back then and hold even more now. Chief among these is the preponderance of analysis devoted to Papua New Guinea, as opposed to, say, an explanation of the greatly disparate levels of wealth and development among Eurasian nations. I will therefore attempt to confine this review on the "meat and potatoes" of his book: the dramatic Spanish conquest of the Incas; the impact of continental geography on food production; and finally, the origins of the Eurasian development of guns, germs, and steel. In terms of structure, I will first summarize the book's arguments, then critically assess the book's evidentiary base, and conclude with an analysis of how Guns, Germs, and Steel ultimately helps to address the wealth question.
Several people rely on caffeine to wake them up or give them a boost of energy when they feel down. Acting as a stimulant, caffeine not only improves concentration and focus, but also stops fatigue (Staff 1). Considered the most commonly used psychoactive drug in the world, approximately 90 percent of adults consume it daily (“MedicineNet.com” 1). But do caffeine buyers really stop to evaluate the possinle harmful effects on their body? Health scares similar to this are not recent. In fact, they have been going on for over 100 years. In 1911, the US Government sued the Coca-Cola company for making their drinks hazardous to other’s health (Lovett 2). Although the Coca-Cola company won, it proves that people worry about what they put into their bodies, even if it does help them stay up to finish their homework. Not everybody will experience the same effects from caffeine. Some people seem more sensitive to caffeine than others (Staff 1). While some will express unwanted effects after only one cup of coffee or tea, others will not notice these same effects until after maybe four or five cups. Although caffeine does include benefits, many downfalls exemplify the stimulant as well. Drinking even small amounts of caffeine daily develops harmful effects on most people’s body and health.
Does one drink caffeine? Caffeine is everywhere, it's in everything, it's apart of our daily lives. That’s what people doesn’t realizes; every soda drink, every cup of coffee, and every energy drink he or she gulps down before a thrilling game, all of that is caffeine. Caffeine is only completed when he or she get addicted. Caffeine can be an exceptional threat to the human body; energy drinks for example, it has enough caffeine to kill someone if he or she drinks enough. Energy drinks has been the number one drink high school students drink to stay awake in school; they even bring the drink in classrooms, and more than one energy drink. Soda has enough caffeine to destroy ones inner body. Soda is a everyday drink for some individuals, they
.... Therefore, is caffeine in coffee a delicious heavenly elixir sent from the gods, or an evil wicked concoction that Americans have all been hypnotized into loving unconditionally as far as addictions go.
In summary, Davidson successful traces Africa’s earliest origins and demonstrates that this is a civilization far from having no arts, technology, sophistication and unique culture. Culture and civilization as we know it today can be traced back to Africa, and modern science has verified the early perceptions of Europeans to be wrong. He provides more than adequate evidence of Africa having a history complete with vast and rich civilization, including archaeological finds and specialized interviews with distinguished scholars and philosophers. Despite the fact that society possesses a more positive attitude towards African civilization today in terms of recognition, equality, and acceptance than in the past, negative stereotypes are still acknowledged and modern day racism unfortunately exists. I believe that the existence of Davidson’s work and videos such as Different but Equal are crucial to challenging these stereotypes and discrimination in order to create a more accurate image of Africa and its history. Overall, Davidson proves that the continent of Africa is home to a history that is just as meaningful, comprehensive, and progressive as that of any other civilization in the
This essay deals with the nature of a cross cultural encounter between the Benin people and Portuguese traders in the 15th and 16th centuries, which resulted in the depiction of Portuguese figures in Benin brass plaques. It will propose that this contact between people with different cultures was on the basis of 'mutual regard' (Woods, K. 2008, p. 16), and although the Portuguese had qualms about idolatry in Benin it will show that assumptions by Europeans up to the 20th century of the primitive nature of tribal African societies was inaccurate with regard to the Benin people, who had a society based on the succession of the King or 'Oba', a Royal Family and Nobility. The essay will finally suggest that Benin’s increase in wealth following the arrival of the Portuguese led to a resurgence in bronze sculptures and the introduction of a new form, the rectilinear plaque.
Caffeine, probably the most widely used drug, is a potent pharmacological and psychotropic agent. The white, bitter-tasting, crystalline substance was first isolated from coffee in 1820. The origins of the words, caffeine and coffee, reflect the spread of the beverage into Europe via Arabia and Turkey form North-East Africa, where coffee trees were cultivated in the 6th century. Coffee began to be popular in Europe in the 17th century, and plantation had been established in Indonesia and the West Indies by the 18th century. Nowadays, it is a regular component of the diet for most people. Caffeine is considered as a cheap drug that could be found in many nature sources such as tea, chocolate, and cocoa.
Abstract: Enzymes are catalysts therefore we can state that they work to start a reaction or speed it up. The chemical transformed due to the enzyme (catalase) is known as the substrate. In this lab the chemical used was hydrogen peroxide because it can be broken down by catalase. The substrate in this lab would be hydrogen peroxide and the enzymes used will be catalase which is found in both potatoes and liver. This substrate will fill the active sites on the enzyme and the reaction will vary based on the concentration of both and the different factors in the experiment. Students placed either liver or potatoes in test tubes with the substrate and observed them at different temperatures as well as with different concentrations of the substrate. Upon reviewing observations, it can be concluded that liver contains the greater amount of catalase as its rates of reaction were greater than that of the potato.
‘Caffeine is a naturally occurring compound also called Trimethylxanthine.’ (Cavellier, 2014). Caffeine is also a stimulant drug, a drug, which temporarily accelerates various vital processes. Caffeine is commonly found in beverages such as soft drinks and coffee, but it can also be found in coco beans and many other plants. The Kola nuts, for examples are used to, produce the Coca Cola flavour and is also used and found in medicines. Numerous people rely on caffeine as an effective way to "wake up" in the morning however, studies have shown that it is addictive, can cause depression and have pregnancy risks. People who drink or have caffeine on a daily basis go through caffeine withdrawal if they don't get their daily fix. On the other hand, researchers have stated that caffeine have shown that caffeine can be very beneficial to the body. For example, caffeine is said to be beneficial in lessening the development of Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease, colon cancer, gallstones and cirrhosis of the liver.
Consumption of 1000–1500 mg per day is associated with a condition known as caffeinism. Caffeinism usually combines caffeine dependency with a wide range of unpleasant physical and mental conditions including nervousness, irritability, restlessness, insomnia, headaches, and heart palpitations after caffeine use. Caffeine blocks the neurotransmitter adenosine, which acts as an inhibitor of the other neurotransmitters. “When adenosine flows normally through the brain, it slows down the brain and body… When adenosine is blocked, the brain and body become more alert and active (Marcovitz 33).” Caffeine from coffee or other beverages is absorbed by the small intestine within 45 minutes of ingestion and then distributed throughout all tissues of the body. Peak blood concentration is reached within one hour. The biological half-life of caffeine the time required for the body to eliminate one-half of the total amount of caffeine varies widely among individuals according to such factors as age, liver function, pregnancy, some concurrent medications, and the level of enzymes in the liver needed for caffeine metabolism. It can also be significantly altered by drugs or hormonal states. In healthy adults, caffeine's half-life has been measured with a ra...
Gilbert, Erik, and Jonathan T. Reynolds. Africa in World History: From Prehistory to the Present. Boston: Pearson, 2012.
The Europeans saw Africa as being a great place to obtain all types of resources from labor to natural materials. Items such as cotton, coal, rubber, copper, tin, gold, and other metals were considered very valuable and readily available in Africa (Nardo). The industrial revolution had already become a strong influence on the countries that attended the Conference. They had spent the past...
The late Chief Justice Pius Langa wrote a report regarding the concept of transformative constitutionalism, his report make reference to defining what transformative constitutionalism is to help understand such a broad topic and ultimately the challenges that our country is faced to create an substantively equal society. Thus these challenges address what South Africans as well as what the government needs to fix in order to create and equal society and to fix the injustices of the past.