Hundreds of cognitive, physical, and emotional symptoms have been associated with the late luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Women who cyclically experience any of these symptoms during their late luteal phase are said to have premenstrual syndrome (commonly known as PMS). However, comorbidity is common as symptoms overlap with those of anxiety and mood disorders (Craner, Sigmon, Martinson, & McGillicuddy, 2014; Chrisler & Caplan, 2002). A small portion of women meet the criteria for what is known as, premenstrual dysmorphic disorder (PMDD). PMDD can be characterized as a severe and unbearable form of PMS. With that in mind, there has been one major criticism regarding the relationship between mood changes and the luteal phase; that is, the two cannot directly be linked together. Several elements have been found to be connected to PMS and PMDD such as, anxiety, depression, lifestyle, and coping methods (Crane & et al., 2014). Conversely, the etiology of these two disorders remains unidentified.
The research literature has been somewhat inconsistent regarding PMS. The prevalence of PMS fluctuates dramatically depending on the report methods. Retrospective studies have found rates as high as 97%, while prospective studies have found rates as low as 3% (Sveinsdottir, Lundman, & Norberg, 2002). However, different methodologies and different populations could account for a large amount of this variation thus suggesting that PMS is not a purely biological phenomenon. Over the last decade, there has continued to be a large emphasis on PMS within the western culture. It has been theorized that PMS is a cultural-bound syndrome, in which women of western societies label any changes that occur during the late luteal phase as abnormal (...
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Men and PMS: Cavemen no more! (2007). Retrieved from PMS Red Flag: http://www.pmsredflag.com/pms-men
Reilly, J., & Kremer, J. (2001). PMS: Moods, measurements and interpretation. The Irish Journal of Psychology, 22, 22-37. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=16&sid=96d7d2a2-d2ba-4882-8e52-46c4bf08d7c2%40sessionmgr198&hid=119&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=psyh&AN=2002-06663-003
Sveinsdottir, H., Lundman, B., & Norberg, A. (2002). Whose voice? Whose experiences? Women's qualitative accounts of general and private discussions of premenstrual syndrome. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 16, 414-423. doi:10.1046/j.1471-6712.2002.00077.x
Ussher, J. M., & Perz, J. (2013). PMS as a gendered illness linked to the construction and relational experience of hetero-femininity. Sex Roles, 68, 132-150. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9977-5
In conclusion, keeping Gender Dysphoria as a diagnosis aids the most vulnerable population in seeking treatment and care, options, protection, and guidance. As society and medicine moves forward, we may be able to steer away from mental health bias and general discrimination towards non-conformity, but for now it is important to protect the patients who are helped by the diagnosis. Gender Dysphoria currently allows patients to be treated under their insurance, have access to care, and fight for their
Sex. Women are more likely to suffer from MDD than men. In fact, there is “a twofold greater prevalence of major depressive disorder in women than in men” (Kaplan Sadock 528). According to Kaplan Sadock, the reason for this imbalance is due to: (a) hormonal imbalances, (b) childbirth, (c) differing psychosocial stressors, and (d) behavioral models of learned helplessness (529).
Waiten,W., (2007) Seventh Edition Psychology Themes and Variations. University of Nevada, Las Vegas: Thomson Wadsworth.
It is common for would-be moms to experience mood swings due to hormonal changes that affect neurotransmitter (chemical messenger in the brain) levels.
Embedded largely in women's discouraged ambitions and limited opportunities, a reaction of supposed hysteria cases occurred during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Due to rise in this type of mental illness, the period became known as the “Golden Age of Hysteria.” Authorities of the time defined the problem in terms of femininity and female sexuality. Coming from the Greek term hysteron, meaning womb, hysteria was known as a strictly female illness that was caused by women's delicate constitutions and emotionality. Many doctors believed the uterus caused it, which was why they concluded that men could not become hysterical. (Showalter, p. 129)
Nursing Times, 92, 52. Oleson, T. & Flocco, W. (1993). "The 'Path of the Earth Randomized Controlled Study of Premenstrual Symptoms Treated with Ear. Hand, and Foot Reflexology. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 82, 906-911.
Gall, S. B., Beins, B., & Feldman, A. (2001). The gale encyclopedia of psychology. (2nd ed., pp. 271-273). Detroit, MI: Gale Group.
Pseudocyesis can cause multiple things including depression.Some may believe in their pregnancy to the point of delusion and they may show signs of depression when there is no baby present on the date of birth. “Depression is merely anger without enthusiasm”. The majority of pseudocystic females deteriorate from slight to critical depression. During the development of a woman’s pregnancy she becomes attached to the embryo and when it is time for the birth and no child is present it becomes depressing due to mental dispute. Not being able to have a child can leave a woman to f...
Hewstone, M. Fincham, F. and Foster, J (2005). Psychology. Oxford: The British Psychological Society, and Blackwell Publishing. P3-23.
Pearson, Catherine. "Female Hysteria: 7 Crazy Things People Used To Believe About The Ladies' Disease." The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 21 Nov. 2013. Web. 30 Apr. 2014. .
Current Directions in Psychological Science 15.5 (2006): 265-68. Print. The.
Preves, Ph.D., Sharon E. "Intersex Narratives: Gender, Medicine, and Identity." Gender, Sex, and Sexuality. New York: Oxford University, 2009. 32-42. Print.
This journal was useful for me because it gave me the background details on why women are opting for delayed motherhood by the age of 30 or 40. Accordingly, I was able to build up my points on how it will affect the health conditions of both baby and mother and also the risk of taking that challenge.
Edited by Raymond J. Corsini. Encyclopedia of Psychology, Second Edition, Volume 3. New York: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Gender roles and identity are constantly shifting throughout different societal generations. Men and woman both have notable similarities and differences in genders and they each contribute to their personalities and actions. In the past men have been viewed as a more dominant sex in society over women, both in careers, home life, and sexually, however, today women have bridged many of the gaps and society is accepting a more equal view of genders. The following examines the similarities and differences between men and woman by looking at biological characteristics, gender roles, and sexual responses.