Breast Self-Exams
In any profession, research plays an integral role in the collection of data that contribute to the overall knowledge that guides the profession. Of all disciplines, the field of health relies heavily on research in order to keep up with changes in disease detection mechanisms and efficiency of new treatment regimens. Studies in this field need to keep up with validity and transferability requirements for the results of the studies to be authentic and applicable. Any good research conducted has its strengths and weaknesses. This paper is a critical evaluation of a study that was conducted on the effect of breast self-exams on curbing breast cancer mortality.
Strengths of the Study
The fact that the study was conducted by qualified medical doctors authenticated the process of the study since the researchers had good knowledge of breast cancer. The study was also conducted in two separate countries, which widened the scope of the study thereby increasing the applicability in terms of geography.
The results of the study were consistent with the findings of other studies of the same nature on the effectiveness of breast self-examination in detecting and curbing breast cancer. According to a report compiled by Nancy Baxter in Canada, there was no evidence of significant benefit of breast self-exam on breast cancer cases in women of various age groups (2001). The study also found that there was considerable physical and psychological harm associated with breast self-exams. A different study by Hackshaw and Paul also found no significant difference in the number of breast cancer deaths between women who had been taught how to perform breast self-exams and those who did not perform the exams (2003).
Another strong poi...
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... (2003). Breast self-examination and death from breast cancer: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Cancer, 88(7), 1047–1053.
Baxter, N. (2001). Preventive health care, 2001 update: Should women be routinely taught breast self-examination to screen for breast cancer? CMAJ, 164(13), 1837-1846.
Brannon, L. & Feist, J. (2009). Health psychology: An introduction to behavior and health. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
References
Hackshaw, K. & Paul, E. A. (2003). Breast self-examination and death from breast cancer: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Cancer, 88(7), 1047–1053.
Baxter, N. (2001). Preventive health care, 2001 update: Should women be routinely taught breast self-examination to screen for breast cancer? CMAJ, 164(13), 1837-1846.
Brannon, L. & Feist, J. (2009). Health psychology: An introduction to behavior and health. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
Brannon, Linda and Jess Feist. Health Psychology: An Introduction to Behavior and Health. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2000.
Throughout the duration of research paper, the researcher was able to receive first-hand testimony from a breast cancer survivor via email. The interview included questions such as: (1) the year and stage the breast cancer was diagnosed; (2) the level of awareness prior to diagnosis; (3) treatments used to combat cancer (chemotherapy, radiation or a combination of both); (4) the present condition of the breast cancer; and (5) the treatment, prevention, or examinations used to keep breast cancer in remission. The interviewee (remains nameless) was diagnosed on July 5, 2002 at Jefferson Hospital from a yearly mammogram. Her breast cancer was diagnosed in stage I, less than 1 mm in diameter (Office of Women’s Health n.d). She exclaimed she was very aware of the heredity risk in her family because of previous family members diagnosed with breast cancer. She received two lumpectomies, following a port was placed in her arm for easier access to her vein during chemotherapy. She received four rounds of chemotherapy, each spaced out by three weeks; she also underwent six weeks of r...
In 2010, breast cancer was the most common cancer in Australian women (excluding non-melanoma skin cancer), accounting for 28.0 per cent of all new cancers in women (AIHW, 2014). It affects an essential part of female self-consciousness, and therefore causes a wide range of psychological traumas (Teymouri et al., 2006). Patients recently diagnosed with breast cancer are distraught with concerns not only about surviving their disease but also about how its treatment will affect their body image and self-image (Djohan et al., 2008).
There are many risks that affect breast cancer. One of the reasons it is more common, is because we have better medical equipment that detects breast cancer at an earlier stage than before. An estimated 192,370 new cases of breast cancer will occu...
Vogel, VG (May 2008). Preventing breast cancer in high-risk women, 2008. Oncology, 22, 6. p.666. Retrieved from Academic OneFile
Treatment for primary, localized breast cancer commonly includes surgical interventions based on tumor type, size, and stage. Certain procedures such as a local excision or lumpectomy conserve more of a woman’s breast than others, where only the breast lump and surrounding area of tissue are removed. A mastectomy is a more radical procedure that removes the entire breast. After a mastectomy, some women choose to have breast reconstructive surgery to restore their sense of body integrity (LeMone et al., 2011). Recently, surgical techniques have improved, resulting in less radical and invasive surgeries. The increase in breast conserving surgery has been related to screening mammograms. On average, screening for breast cancer detects tumors in smaller and earlier stages, enabling patients to begin treatment before the cancer advances to more invasive stages (Watts, 2013).
Today in the United States, Breast Cancer occurs in about one in eight women which is currently the most common cancer among women. The number of cases is expected to decrease due to the advancements in technology and dedicated researchers. Scientists have put an estimated 4.8 billion dollars towards the research every year to help find a cure or a new treatment for breast cancer ("STAT Facts Breast Cancer"). Researchers have found causes, put in research and theories that help with understanding treatments, prevention and also common symptoms and coping mechanisms.
Breast Cancer is defined as “a group of solid tumor malignancies arising in the tissues of the breast” (Sarah Crawford, Richard Alder, 2013) in human and other mammals. It can happen to both men and women. For women, breast cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer death. According to National Cancer Institute, in the United States, the 2014 estimated new cases and deaths of female from breast cancer are 232,670 and 40,000, respectively. For male, it’s 430 deaths out of 2,360 new cases. From these numbers, we can see that women in the U.S. are greatly affected by breast cancer, thus, it’s not difficult to imagine the impact on a worldwide level. Although these numbers look frightening, people can actually survive from breast cancer if it is detected early and treated properly, so it is extremely important for all of us, especially women, to have a better understanding of breast cancer.
“Estimated to be diagnosed in 1 of every 8 women in their lifetime, breast cancer continues to present a public health concern (Haber 2322)”. Breast cancer is not biased. It affects men and women of all races and ages. “Cancer represents 30% of the burden posed by no communicable diseases in the Region of the Americas of the World Health Organization (Luciani, Silvana 640)”. In men it affects less than 1 percent of the population. Routine mammograms and checkups are not only healthy but can also save lives. Giving the doctor thirty minutes of your time could ultimately mean the difference between life and death in some cases.
In India, 144,937 women were newly detected with breast cancer and 70,218 women died of breast cancer in 2012. For every 2 women newly diagnosed with breast cancer, one lady is dying of it. Incidence of breast cancer has also increased from 25.9% in the year of 2008 to 27% in 2012.In the year 2012, there were about 2, 32,000 breast cancer cases reported in the US, whereas in India, 1,45,000 new cases were diagnosed. This implies that, though, because of India's population, the percentage of total women affected seems less, the breast cancer burden in India has almost reached about 2/3rds of that of the US and is steadily rising. For the years 2015, there will be an estimated 1, 55,000 new cases of breast cancer and about 76000 women in India are expected to die of the disease.
Rosen, Leo and Rosen, Gloria. (2011).Learn About Cancer. American Cancer Society. Retrieved November 26, 2015 from http://www.cancer.org/cancer/breastcancer/index
Skravanek, P. (1988). The debate over mass mammography in Britain: Br Med J; 297: 1542.
A series of educational workshops targeting women in the community who meet the mammography measure’s eligibility criteria.
Historically speaking breast cancer has been around for hundreds of years. Thankfully the treatment has improved. Patients who get the cancer removed and take care of themselves after, for example, by exercising and eating healthy, will live longer. There are many risks that increase the likelihood of developing breast cancer, for instance, age, family history, and race. A women who made history with breast cancer was Betty Ford, Betty was one of the first lady’s to speak openly about her disease. Betty encouraged women who have been affected with the disease to go to their doctor as soon as possible and told women who had shared that they didn’t have breast cancer to do self breast exams regularly and get mammograms. She also said when women get diagnosed with it don’t be embarrassed. Treatments in the past were pretty good and quite the same compared to the treatments given to people now, for instance, mastectomy’s which was the primary...
Breast cancer is a malignant tumor that starts in the cells of the breast. A malignant tumor is a group of cancer cells that can grow into (invade) surrounding tissues or spread (metastasize) to distant areas of the body. The disease occurs almost entirely in women, but men can get it, too (What is Breast Cancer, 2015). The purpose of this evaluation is to introduce the audience to breast cancer; discuss risk factors, symptoms, diagnosis; address the mind- body connection of breast cancer and suggestions for prevention and treatment; and provide an overview of breast cancer in social cognitive theory framework. Lastly, one alternative intervention for breast cancer will be highlighted in accordance with the social cognitive