Parasite Control
An interesting use for clonazepam is in the treatment of schistosomiasis, a disease caused by a parasite found in the fecal matter of snails. When it comes in contact with the skin, the parasite boroughs into the body and finds its way to the intestines and stomach, causing fever, aches, chills, muscle spasms, and death. The death rate for this subtropical disease is around 280,000 a year. Currently, praziquantel is the only therapeutic drug in use, but this can lead to permanent risk of parasite resistance in future, genetically evolved generations. Menezes (2012) combined the current treatment with a synthesized version of clonazepam called meclonazepam. This drug was able to slow the contractions of muscles, allowing the praziquantel to have more time to find and target the parasite. However, due to the synthesized drug’s increased adverse side effects which include psychomotor impairments, sedation, and ataxia, therapeutic use is not possible at this time. Further modifications of the synthesized drug are currently being worked on to help combat this fatal parasite.
Tolerance and Dependence
Tolerance and dependence of Clonazepam has become a concern in the new age of prescription pill abuse and rise in acceptance of psychiatry over the last several years. Clonazepam, like most benzodiazepines can be habit forming if not monitored by a doctor. Doses must be slowly increased and then later decreased to prevent withdrawal symptoms and physical and psychological need for the drug. If tapering is not done correctly or at all, severe anxiety can occur and increase the chances of relapse in addicts or continued use for psychiatric patients. This is why Clonazepam is often prescribed for short term use, with doct...
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Menezes, C., Rivera, G., Alves, M., do Amaral, D., Thibaut, J., Noël, F., & ... Lima, L. (2012). Synthesis, biological evaluation, and structure-activity relationship of clonazepam, meclonazepam, and 1,4-benzodiazepine compounds with schistosomicidal activity. Chemical Biology & Drug Design, 79(6), 943-949. doi:10.1111/j.1747-0285.2012.01354.x
Pandurangi, A., Nayak, R., Bhogale, G., Patil, N., Chate, S., & Chattopadhaya, S. (2012). Clonazepam in the treatment of essential palatal tremors. Indian Journal Of Pharmacology, 44(4), 528-530. doi:10.4103/0253-7613.99343
Vuilleumier, P., Besson, M., Desmeules, J., Arendt-Nielsen, L., & Curatolo, M. (2013). Evaluation of anti-hyperalgesic and analgesic effects of two benzodiazepines in human experimental pain: a randomized placebo-controlled study. Plos One, 8(3), e43896. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0043896
Fatal incidents such as cardiac and respiratory arrest are more commonly known to occur in patients that have related, pre-existing conditions. Other high-risk populations includes adults with chronic renal failure, those who are frequently ill and children with cardiovascular instability (Pfizer New Zealand, 2012). Additionally, when midazolam is used for long period of time, patients may show symptoms of physical dependency that only worsens if administration is continued. However, if treatment is halted abruptly, the patient may suffer from symptoms of withdrawal, including, but not limited to: muscle pain, headaches, mood changes, hallucinations, anxiety and confusion.
Physostigmine is a drug used for the treatment of severe anticholinergic syndrome. Such as nervous delirium, urinary reten...
Scopolamine is an alkaloid drug derived from plants in the Solanaceae family. This family of plants are called nightshade plants, and some examples are henbane and jimson weed. The chemical formula of scopolamine is C17H21NO4. Brand names include Scopoderm and Transderm-V. The medication works as an antagonist at muscarinic acetylcholine receptors by blocking the acetylcholine-mediated nerve impulses that travel to the inner ear. The inner ear is where the sense of balance is regulated in humans. Acetylcholine (Ach) is a major transmitter found in the autonomic ganglia that allows neurons to communicate for sensory input and muscle control. Muscarinic receptors are vital in the control of the central nervous system (CNS) and also parasympathetic control of the heart, lungs, and gastrointestinal processes. By blocking the action of these receptors, a result is possible impaired central and peripheral nervous system functioning. Inhibiting this functioning could also cause tachycardia, which can lead to myocardial infarction (heart attack) or angina (chest pain).
It is often recommended to taper of the dosage of antidepressants gradually so that the body can get used to the change. As a counterclaim, it is said that up to 20 percent of people who stop taking antidepressants can suddenly experience unpleasant side effects, up to 72 hours of the last dose. For some, the discontinuation symptoms are so severe that they avoid taking an psychotropic medications again. However this is rare to happen if the dosages units are not abused and discontinuation of the drug is done through the primary care physicians consent.
As per this the authors conducted an experiment with placebo anesthetic cream in order to investigate the placebo effect in pain reduction. The results suggest that placebo of local anesthetics are not mediated by global mechanisms of placebo effect. Global mechanisms (such as anxiety reduction and endogenous opioids) are opposed to the second group of factors contributing to placebo effect – flexible mechanism (classical conditioning and expectancies).
Ciclopirox acts differently with more complex mechanism of action as it is free acid of ciclopiroxolamine and having same spectrum activity to ciclopiroxolamine (Subissi et. al, 2010). This also has been explained by Bhapkar et.al (2013) that ciclopirox is a synthetic drug that has broad spectrum activity that can inhibit the growth of dermatophytes, yeast as well as moulds. Ciclopirox acts as antifungal and anti bacterial drug and as it target the metabolic process of the fungal cell and cause intracellular depletion of essential substrate (example: amino acid) and ions (example: potassium). According to Gupta et.al (2005) and Bhapkar et.al (2013), mechanism of action of ciclopi...
The detailed mechanism of BoNT pathogenicity and the structure-function relationship of BoNT provide invaluable targets for development of the antidotes and inhibitors against botulism. The BoNT molecule is divided in clear functional domains that can operate independently. This feature provides multiple targets for designing therapeutics to treat botulism. High throughput screening and the combinatorial chemistry provide another useful tool for screening the inhibitors against botulism (Cai and Singh, 2007). Early work with zinc metalloprotease inhibitors focused on the well-characterized agents captopril ((2S)-1-[(2S)-2-methyl-3-sulfanyl-propanoyl] pyrrolidine-2-carboxylic acid) and phosphoramidon (N-alpha-L-rhamno pyranosyl oxy [hydroxyl phosphinyl]-L-leucyl-L-tryptophan). These compounds, however, were found to have little inhibitory activity against BoNT (Adler et al., 1994, 1999a). Phosphoramidon analogs in which Leu–Trp was replaced by Phe–Glu to resemble the cleavage site of synaptobrevin exhibited little increase in inhibitory activity (Adler et al., 1999a).
e) What lifestyle factors can influence the therapeutic levels of clozapine? Explain how they affect the therapeutic levels of clozapine
Addiction is a dependence on a substance where the individual who is affected feels defenseless and unable to stop the obsession to use a substance or prevent a particular behavior. Millions of Americans have addictions to drugs, alcohol, nicotine, and even to behaviors such as obsessive gambling. Pharmacotherapy is a treatment process in which a counselor can use a particular drug to counter act an addictive drug or behavior. Not all counselors agree with this type of treatment. However in order to provide a client with an ethical treatment and unbiased opinions they should be made aware of all scientific evidence of different treatment options. “Thus, attention to addiction pharmacotherapy is an ethical mandate no matter what prejudices a counselor may have” (Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2008, p. 196). Some particular pharmacotherapy’s a counselor may use for the treatment of addiction are Bupropion (Wellbutrin, Zyban), Disulfiram (Antabuse), Naltrexone (ReVia, Depade), Methadone (Dolophine), and Buprenorphine (Temgesic, Suboxone).
The discovery of morphine, which occurred in 1803, transformed the medical treatment of pain and chronic diseases (Levinthal, 2005). Morphine, a narcotic or opioid, is widely used in the medical field today and is specifically used therapeutically to treat moderate to severe pain in individuals. The most common routes of administration for morphine are oral and intravenous administration (Angel, Gould, Carey, 1998). Morphine acts by binding to opioid receptors in the brain and thus reduces the perception of pain and emotional responses to pain (Weil and Winifred, 2004). The paper will focus on the therapeutic uses of morphine for individuals. Morphine is used in the treatment of pain with individuals suffering from cancer and acute myocardial infarction. Morphine is also administered to patients after surgery to decrease pain and is even thought to decrease the chances of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (Busse, 2006; Herlitz, Hjalmarson, and Waagstein, 1989; Levin, 2010).
Over the last 20 years, many young adults have been taking antidepressant drugs such as Sertraline, commonly referred to as Zoloft, to ease their pain and struggles. Antidepressants are drugs which were initially used for the treatment of depression, but knowingly proved to be effective for other types of diagnosis, such as anxiety disorders, eating disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), sleep disorders, chronic pain, migraines, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and substance abuse. These drugs, especially Zoloft, work by correcting chemical imbalances in the brain which are known to trigger change in a person’s mood and behavior, thus’ making them feel content. However, throughout the years questions still remain as to whether antidepressants are effective or not. — Therefore taking a look at one brand in particular, is the use of antidepressant drugs such as Zoloft an effective way to treat depression in young adults?
In the 1930’s Sandoz Pharmaceuticals in Switzerland began experimenting with new drugs. Albert Hofmann, a young chemist at Sandoz, was planning to discover a cure for individuals with respiratory and circulatory system issues. Hofmann started experimenting with the lysergic acid that is found in the Clavica pupurea fungus, rye, and other grains. Lysergic acid is used to cure headaches; Hofmann thought that the lysergic acid had potential to cure more than headaches. With the lysergic acid, he thought that diethylamide might be a possible match for a drug that could cure. Diethylamide is an amide that has the ability to bond with many proteins in the body. The brain is especially responsive to the diethylamide (Petechuk 12). In 1938 Hofmann synthesized lysergic acid with diethylamide. He then named the compou...
Reinarman, Craig and Peter D. A. Cohen and Hendrien L. Kaal. “The Limited Relevance of Drug
Fluvoxamine, a common serotonin reuptake medication, has a discontinuation rate of 70% (Ferguson, 2001). Other common antidepressant medications like fluoxetine or setraline have discontinuation rates of 45% and 40%, respectively (Ferguson, 2001). These unfortunate figures leave a person susceptible to irritating withdrawal symptoms. Many patients may experience anxiety, sleep disturbances, and flulike symptoms days after stopping their medication. These symptoms are especially apparent when a patient abruptly ends their prescription without tapering or when there is poor adherence. With such complications that accompany antidepressant medication use and our understanding that there are imbalances occurring in the brain, is there an alternative or supplemental treatment that can be
The major concepts deduced from the hypothesis fall under three categories: (1) multimodal intervention, (2) attentive care, and (3) patient participation. Multimodal intervention includes the concepts of potent pain medication, pharmacological adjuvants, and non-pharmacological adjuvants. Attentive care relates to the assessment of pain and side effects and intervention along with reassessments. Patient participation includes goal setting and patient education. The resulting outcome of these three categories working together is the balance between analgesia and side effects.