Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder has been highly examined and studied for over 100 years, and to this very day, still remains a highly contentious and obscure subject. However, despite its unascertained origins, ADHD is ironically the most commonly diagnosed psychiatric illness in children (6). Five to ten percent of school-aged kids are affected by the neurological disease (6), yet there still remains no sure explanation as to how exactly the human brain manifests this disability. Nonetheless, stimulant-based medicine is most regularly used in treating the major ADHD symptoms: impulsivity, inattention, and hyperactivity. The stimulant drugs’ functioning helps better children’s’ focusing, working, and learning abilities by enhancing or leveling certain neurotransmitters in the brain (1). Many researchers suspect that individuals with ADHD have weak dopamine signals that interfere with their ability to focus; thus, by stimulating increased dopamine release, their attentiveness will improve (2). However, the stimulants’ relaxing effects on hyperactive children are incongruent with the known alerting, locomotive, and wakeful effects of stimulant drugs. Although medically, it is clear why stimulants help tend to ADHD symptoms such as lack of concentration and impulsivity, there is still much uncertainty as to why a stimulating drug would alleviate the ADHD symptoms of hyperactivity. Despite the fact that no research has fully proven the reason for this paradox, through consideration of the neural mechanisms of the brain, and copious lab tests and research on mice, neuroscientists have been able to hypothesize an explanation for the anomalous calming effects stimulants bear on children with ADHD.
In order to comprehend the impa...
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(Botsford, 2006)
Kirley, A., Hawi, Z., Daly, G., McCarron, M., Mullins, C., Millar, N...Gill, M. (2002). Dopaminergic system genes in adhd: Toward a biological hypothesis. Neuropsychopharmacology, 27, 608-612. Retrieved from http://www.nature.com.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/npp/journal/v27/n4/full/1395905a.html
(Kirley et al., 2002)
Napolitano, F., Bonito-Oliva, A., Gu, H., Mercuri, N., Usiello, A., Federici, M…Usiello, A. (2012). Role of aberrant striatal dopamine d1 receptor/cAMP/protein kinase a/DARPP32 signaling in the paradoxical calming effect of amphetamine. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30. Retrieved March 20, 2012, from http://www.jneurosci.org/content/30/33/11043.full
(Napolitano et al., 2012)
The need for Ritalin and other CNS stimulants arises from a decreased amount of dopamine—a hormone closely linked to the motivational process((3)). A deficiency of this hormone can lead to difficulty in focusing and agitated behavior, among other traits1 ((1)). Methylphenidate, serving as a stimulant, augments the release of this hormone. The resulting state is similar to that after caffeine, on a milder scale, or amphetamines1 ((1)). This attribute can lead to the somewhat addictive nature of the drug.
Hodgkins, P., Shaw, M., McCarthy, S., & Sallee, F. R. (2012). The pharmacology and clinical outcomes of amphetamines to treat ADHD. CNS Drugs, 26(3), 245-68. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/11599630-000000000-00000
Amphetamines produce feelings of euphoria, relieve fatigue, improve performance, increase activity, and suppress appetite. Euphoric effects associated with the use of amphetamines, increase potential for abuse. Consequently, prolonged use of amphetamines may lead to drug dependence and tolerance. Desired effects are only achieved by increasing to higher doses of amphetamine, which can result in an acute overdose. Seizures, hypertension, tachycardia, hyperthermia, psychosis, hallucinations, stroke, or death can be experienced. Additional reports revealed that those who abuse amphetamines were significantly more likely to report using a greater number of illicit substances including nicotine, marijuana, cocaine, hallucinogens, and opiates.
“Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).” Tish Davidson, AM., Teresa G. Odle., and Laura Jean Cataldo, RN, Ed.D. The Gale Encyclopedia of Genetic Disorders. 3rd Edition. 2010.
Stimulant drugs are widely used to treat the symptoms of ADHD. These stimulants dramatically reduce the hyperactivity of sufferers and improve their ability to focus, learn and work. Such medication may also improve physical coordination, for instance handwriting and sports. Research completed by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) suggests that these medicines may also help children with an accompanying conduct disorder to control their impulsive, destructive behaviours. The three medications that have been proven by the NIMH to be most effective in both children and adults suffering from ADHD are: methylphenidate (Ritalin), dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine or Dextrostat), and pemoline (Cylert). (NIMH 1999) Yet there is currently much research on the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, such as t...
As such no single etiology has been identified for ADHD. ADHD is a heterogeneous condition currently thought to result from a complex interaction between the psychosocial stressors, environmental factors, neuro-chemical/ neuro-anatomical factors, familial and genetic factors.
It is important to understand what ADHD is. ADHD stands for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder that was originally thought to be a form of "minimal brain dysfunction (MBD) (D’Alonzo 88)," however, it is no longer recognized as a form of MBD. "Along with these changes in classification, investigators identified behaviors related to ADHD: hyperactivity, restlessness, impulsivity, aggression, distractibility, and short attention span. These symptoms formed the three behavioral constructs inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity described by the American Psychiatric Association (D’Alonzo 88)." In both the professional and lay media ADHD is routinely referred to as a neurological disorder, while most experts agree that genetic-biochemical factors influence behavior somewhat, the general public tends to view this as biologically unco...
ADHD is believed to be caused by abnormalities in the dopamine neurotransmitters in the brain (Berne 4). The symptoms of ADHD include inattention, impulsiveness and hyperactivity that are inappropriate for a person's age level. In other words, the patient’s brain is like a light constantly going off and on at the worst possible times. Although there is no cure for ADHD, treatment can help control symptoms. Stimulant therapy is the most commonly used type of treatment. These drugs improve ADHD symptoms in 70 percent of adults and 70-80 percent of children shortly after starting treatment (ADHD 3). Adderall RX, or its formal name of Methylphenidate, is the most common form of treatment for ADHD. In an article by Dr. Phillip W. Long, he states that, “The mode of action in man is not completely understood, but meth...
The lack of a complete understanding of ADHD has led scientists to question how to go about treating ADHD. While at the moment the disorder cannot be cured, they are methods that scientists have come up with to address the symptoms displayed by ADHD. These approaches range all the way from psychotherapy, and cognitive-behavioral therapy, to the prescription of pyschostimulant medications. (3) The most popular of these medications include amphetamines, such as Aderall, and methylphenidates such as Ritalin. (1) The use of such drugs ...
ADHD derives its roots from the early eighteenth century when it was diagnosed by George Still. The name however was not designated for the disorder in 1902 by Still. George Still found 20 children with problems of attention deficiency and postulated a theory which stated that the children may be suffering from some genetic disorder which accounted for their unusual behavior. At that time the disorder was named as the Defect of Moral Thought by ...
The truth is within the past two generations a phenomenon has taken place in connection to children across this country. Today one and a half million children take medication to focus attention and control hyperactive behavior (Freed 216). Most of these children have been diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. There are three types of ADHD the first consists of inattention only or the inability to focus attention. The second consists of hyperactivity and impulsivity. The third form of ADHD is a combined type where the child or adult has difficulty dealing with attention and hyperactivity and impulsivity. Children with ADHD are typically prescribed a drug called Ritalin (or one similar to it), which is a methylphenidate (recently amphetamines have been used also) making it easier to control behavior.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, normally abbreviated as ADHD, is a disorder in which a person has trouble paying attention and focusing on tasks, tends to act without thinking and has trouble sitting still. This condition may begin in early childhood and continue into adulthood. Without treatment ADHD can cause problems at home, school, work and any social gatherings.
The conclusion drew was that more research needs to be conducted to before drawing an absolute conclusion that genetics and neurobiology determine the patterns of ADHD
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is very commonly known. Today, ADHD is one of the most common mental disorders among children. The NIMH (The national institute of mental health) predicts that it affecting 3 to 5 percent of all children(AACAP), with an approximate amount of 30% to 65% of these children experiencing persistence of symptoms into adolescence and adulthood (AACAP).There are three types of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type, Predominantly Inattentive Type, and Combination Type(ehow.com). The symptoms of ADHD can be classified into three main categories; hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity. These behaviors can interfere with ADHD sufferers’ ability to focus deliberately on organizing and completing a specific task that they may not enjoy. A case of this kind of behavior is recognized in a report written by the National Institute of Mental Health where one of the subjects under study was unable to pass schooling examinations due to her inattentive behavior (clinicaltrials.gov) These kinds of behaviors can damage the person's relationships with others in addition to disrupting their daily life, consuming energy, and diminishing self-esteem, depending on severity of their symptoms (adhd.com). In this paper, the multiple factors of how ADHD affects, and is handled, of those who undergo this disorder, are shown.
Basile, Maria ."Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder”. The Gale Encyclopedia of Genetic Disorders. Ed. Laurie Fundukian. 3rd ed. Detroit: Gale, 2010. 2 vols.