Introduction
In Ancient Greece, many believed that everything was made up of simple particles called Atoms. They called them Atoms because they believed that they had no parts and could not be broken. This had been believed for many centuries until evidence that something smaller actually existed (the electron). Once scientists found the electron, they were not satified. Scientists kept creating new theories and testing new hypothesis' attempting to find what makes the world tick. Now, the universe's fundimental particles have seemingly been found, but scientists are still searching for a more complete answer.
The sub-atomic particles that are known to exist now are a strange and vast new addition to the seemingly grand scale that
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Each has a specific mass, a specific electromagnetic charge and a spin of 1, but no color charge (so they do not participate in the strong force). Weak interactions are the flavor changes between particles (flavor being the specific type of particle).
The final boson is the graviton. It has theoretically not been observed due to the relative lack of energy that gravity has compared to the other forces. But it is theorized to be the force-carrier wave for gravity, and the interactions it deals with is mass and energy.
Fermions are the fundamental particles for everything in the universe. How they are described is: Fermions are particles with a spin of an odd multiple of 1/2 (1/2, 3/2, 5/2).
Two types of basic fermion exist, the quark and the lepton. These fermions are subject to Pauli Exclusion Principle which states that no particle can exist in the same state in the same place at the same time. Quarks and Leptons have something known as "flavor". Flavor is just a name for the type particle of a class. Since all fermions have flavor, they are all subject to interactions with W-, W+, and Z bosons which are the force carriers for the weak
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This means that gluons will react with quarks but not with leptons.
Leptons consist of three flavors of charged particle and a neutral "neutrino" for each flavor of charged particle. Of these 6 lepton particles, only 4 are stable in the universe: electrons, electron neutrinos, muon neutrinos, and tau neutrinos. The other leptons, muons and taus, are more massive than their first generation cousin, the electons, and therefore will decay into a more stable state via the weak force.
Quarks have two different types and three flavors of each type also. There are the quarks with a charge of -1/3 and quarks with the charge 2/3. Of these, the only quarks noted in somewhat stable particles are the up, down, and strange quark. The other quarks (charm, bottom, top) are very unstable and decay very quickly after being created. Quarks are always accompanied by gluons, and are always in sets where their total color charge equals zero. Quarks are what make up hadrons and mesons.
Hadrons are particles that are comprised of quarks and gluons. Baryons and mesons are different types of
The Standard Model is known as a gauge theory, and is based on the symmetry group SU(3)C⊗SU(2)L⊗U(1)Y; as described in the previous section the symmetry group of standard model, describes the strong, weak and electromagnetic interactions, via the exchange of 8 massless gluons and 1 massless photon, respectively, for the strong and electromagnetic interactions, and three massive bosons, W± and Z, for the weak interaction2. Leptons and quarks which are the building blocks of the fermionic matter, are characterized in the structure below,
For centuries, physicists and philosophers alike have wondered what makes up our universe. Aristotle thought that all matter came in one of four forms: Earth, Air, Fire, and Water. Since then we have come a long way, with the discovery of the atoms and the subatomic particles they are made of. We can even guess at what makes up protons and neutrons. We have since then discovered and predicted the existence of particles other than the atom, such as the photon, neutrino, axion, and many others.
Elements are the universes energy in four basic states - Air, Fire, Water and Earth. There is also a fifth universal power beyond the visible four elements which is Spirit.
Most people see particles as protons, neutrons, and electrons “matter” particles, and their antiparticles are then “antimatter.” The term matter is then extended to include all quarks, all negatively charged leptons, and left handed neutrinos. Anti-matter is any particle built from Antiquarks, positively charged leptons, and right handed neutrinos. A particle made from quarks like baryon is called matter. Just as a particle made from antiquarks such as the antibaryon is called anti matter. For bosons there is no way to distinct matter and antimatter.
Protons are positively charged and electrons are negatively charged. Protons and electrons both have charges of equal magnitude (i.e. 1.602x10-19 coulombs). Neutrons have a neutral charge, and they, along with protons, are the majority of the mass in an atom. Electron mass, though, is negligible. When an atom has a neutral charge, it is stable.
In 1803 this theory was finalised and stated that (1) all matter is made up of the smallest possible particles termed atoms, (2) atoms of a given element have unique characteristics and weight, and (3) three types of atoms exist: simple (elements), compound (simple molecules), and complex (complex molecules).
Quarks are groups of elementary particles which are the basic components of all hadrons. Quarks have some properties, like electric charge, mass, color charge and spin. There are flavors of quarks which are up quarks, down quarks, charm quarks, top quarks, strange quarks and bottom quarks. These different kinds of quarks make up protons, neutrons and baryons. And quarks also comprise mesons. Among those different kinds of quarks, up quarks and down quarks are the most common ones. Most importantly, none of those quarks can exist as a single particle, because their masses are very small. This phenomenon is called “quantum confinement” and states that quarks cannot be observed independently, only confined in hadrons.
The theory of quantum mechanics has divided the atom into a number of fundamental sub-atomic particles. Although the physicist has shown that the atom is not a solid indivisible object, he has not been able to find a particle which does possess those qualities. Talk of particles, though, is misleading because the word suggests a material object. This is not the intention for the use of the word in quantum physics. Quantum particles are, instead, representations of the actions and reactions of forces at the sub-atomic level. In fact, physicists are less concerned with the search for a material particle underlying all physical objects and more interested in explaining how nature works. Quantum theory is the means that enables the physicist to express those explanations in a scientific way.
Physicists know that in order for the oscillation process to take place, one or both of the neutrinos must have mass, and their masses must be different. The bigger the difference in masses, the faster the oscillation. Particles masses are measured in units of energy. These units are called electrovolts.
Antimatter is exactly what the name suggests. It is the opposite of matter in which the charges associated with electrons and protons are switched. This means a proton and antiproton are attracted to each other. When they collide pane energy is produced in the form of three pions and four gamma rays.
Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and can be perceived by one or more senses; a physical body, a physical substance, or the universe as a whole. There are four distinct states of matter: solids, liquids, gases, and plasma. There are other states of matter such as Bose-Einstein condesates and neutron degenerate matter, but those states can only be found under extreme conditions.
Mesons are composed of quark and anti-quark, and are sensitive to a strong force that bonds the components of the nucleus (Encyclopedia Britannica). Bosons differ dramatically from subatomic particles, known as fermions. There is no limit to the number a boson can occupy. This relates to the book because it discusses the particles required to embody the fields of quantum field theory. The quantum field theory is a body of physical principles combining the elements of quantum mechanics.
The idea of the atom started all the way back from the ancient Greece. What is sad about this is that one philosopher’s idea it was rejected by the rest of the philosophers of the time. Philosophers like Aristotle. The ancient Greeks did not have all the modern technology we have now and were not equipped to test their atomic theory. The theory they had hypothesized was if you keep dividing something, the smallest living thing had to be an atom.
New inventions are created daily; however, it is those that truly change the world that are remembered. The use and discovery of atomic energy negatively impacts the world because of the danger it entails. Many people across the world believe that the use of atomic energy is a mistake based off of past events that have occurred such as the bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The abuse of atomic energy has been proven to damage society’s morale, population and could potentially destroy entire populations.
Sir Isaac Newton held the theory that light was made up of tiny particles. Before, most theories of light had an unexplainable phenomenon. Einstein had suggested that tiny particles which have energy, called protons, formes into light. This suggestion was made when he proposed a solution to the problems of observations discovered on the actions of light having the characteristics of both wave and particle theory.