Transcendentalism in Beowulf and Antigone
As time progressed through the various ages, Ancient to Renaissance, a trend began to form in the literature. The Ancient periods, reflected in the writings of the Taoists and the Greeks, were basically a time of transcendentalism. The gods of this era were treated almost as if they are friends to the people, or advisors; the gods controlled their fates and the uncontrollable, but the people were still very individualistic. As time progressed forwards, a trend swept Europe towards a period of theism, where the god or gods are treated as father figures; the gods controlled the lives of all their people just as parents control their children, even, as Martin Luther stated, with an attitude of fear. Through the periods of Ancient Greece, to Medieval Europe, to Renaissance Europe, a cycle forms from a completely transcendentalist attitude to a completely theistic attitude, and back.
Some of the first literature scholars have recovered through the years has come from the Ancient period, particularly from the Orient and Greece. These people had a strong belief in the will and power of the self, stressing the transcendental qualities to life; they encouraged people to look inwards for the answer instead of to the state or to God. Two works of this period that are representative of this attitude are the poems of Lao Tzu, a Taoist, and Antigone, a play by Sophocles. In Lao Tzu’s poem 47, "There is no need to run outside," Lao Tzu writes, ". . . abide / At the center of your being; / For the more you leave it, the less you learn" (Davis, 832). By encouraging others to study the world from "the center of your being," he clearly shows his interest in learning from within, and trusting the self to learn and grow. In poem 42, "Life, when it came to be," Lao Tzu establishes the previously stated recommendation by showing that he himself follows it; at the end of the poem he states, ". . . And is what my own heart teaches" (Davis, 832). This statement is a direct encouragement to look inside oneself for answers, an inherent quality of the Taoist writings.
The other important work to consider is the play Antigone, by Sophocles. Even the name of the play, which literally means "born to oppose," suggests an individualistic attitude. Throughout the play, Antigone clearly privileges the value of the self and the individual. In Scene 1, after Creon has received the news of the reburial of Polyneices, the Choragos asks, ". . .can it be that the Gods have done this?" to which Creon replies furiously, ". . .‘The gods!’ / Intolerable!" (Davis, 419). The king belittles the importance of the possibility of the gods intervening not only to show that he firmly believes in his absolute judgment, but that he has no real use for the ideas of the gods, that these superstitions are "Intolerable." Later, in Scene 2, after Antigone has been captured and brought to Creon, she says, "Which of us can say what the gods hold wicked?" which Creon follows with, "An enemy is an enemy, even dead." Antigone reasserts the idea that the entire topic of religion is very individualistic, as she asks what man among them is important enough to judge what the gods think is right and wrong. Creon, in his return comment, reasserts his judgment as the absolute judgment of the land, and this attitude of placing the will of the state over that of individual, family interests eventually leads to his failure as a leader. Although the Greeks believed that their futures were glued to the hand of fate, they were very individualist in their attitudes towards life. They were not content with someone else’s answer; instead they had to create an answer of their own, derived from what they believed was right.
The next important shift in thought occurred during the Medieval period, which took place primarily in Europe. The trust of the people shifted from primarily believing in their own judgment to believing in such concepts as divine guidance, and placing their allegiance in superior powers like bishops, lords, and God. Two works are particularly representative of this attitude during the period, Beowulf, and The Confessions by St. Augustine. Beowulf is a parable that shows the consequences of losing faith in God and placing too much faith in oneself. Throughout the poem, the character Beowulf moves constantly from a pride based in God and the greater powers to a pride based upon the strength of himself. The parable becomes evident when he turns all of his trust to himself, and is ultimately defeated by the great dragon. When Beowulf is sleeping in Heorot, waiting for Grendel to attack, the poet describes his piety: "The Geatish hero put all his hope / In his fearless might and the mercy of God!" (Davis, page 1136). By placing "all his hope" in the "mercy of God," Beowulf is reassured that he will win the battle. Several lines down, Beowulf himself reasserts this idea as he says, "‘And God in his wisdom shall glory assign, / The ruling Lord, as He deems it right’" (Davis, 1136). These lines are bold statements of Beowulf’s complete faith in God to help him win in battle against the forces of evil. As the book progresses, Beowulf’s pride turns slowly from pride based in the glory of God to pride based in the self, resulting in Beowulf’s downfall. Before entering battle with the dragon, he says, "‘I came in safety through many a conflict . . . Old as I am, I will fight this feud, / Do manful deeds, if the dire destroyer / Will come from his cavern to meet my sword’" (Davis, 1172). Beowulf pridefully states that even as "old" as he may be, he can still defeat anyone who will "meet [his] sword" through use of his manly power and strength. Not once is the word God or any similar idea of divine power mentioned throughout the entire passage. He continues to show that he is so strong, and he needs to prove it so dearly, that he will single-handedly take on the monster: "‘Not yours the adventure, . . . save mine alone, / To measure his strength with the monstrous dragon . . . By deeds of daring I’ll gain the gold / Or death in battle shall break your earl’" (Davis, 1173). In his bloodthirsty hubris, Beowulf is willing to risk his life in "deeds of daring," his deeds alone to "measure his strength," just to prove that he himself is the great Beowulf. True to his fate, as he loses faith in God, he falters and is killed. Thus, Beowulf was really a parable to give an example to those who might stray from their complete faith and devotion to God.
Another important work of this time is St. Augustine’s Confessions, an autobiography portraying Augustine’s conversion and his religious philosophies. In the preface to this story, the textbook foreshadows the pious content of Augustine’s work by placing it among the more religious of literature: "Indeed, to him all of history flowed from one moment, the sacrifice of Christ on the cross. . ." (Davis, 899). In the introduction of his Confessions, Augustine praises God heavily by telling him, "You are great, O Lord, and greatly to be praised: great is your power and to your wisdom there is no limit. And man, who is a part of your creation, wishes to praise you. . ." (Davis, 905). Augustine sets man up as a subordinate to God by stating repeatedly that man is "a part of your [God’s] creation," and that the Lord is "greatly to be praised," which confirms his belief that man must simply give himself up to God’s will. Even the title of Chapter 2, "God Omnipresent," suggests an overbearing presence of this fatherly being; and after Augustine considers asking God to come into him, he leaves the reader in a state of awe at God’s power and being: "O Lord my God, is there anything in me that can contain you?" (Davis, 905). Augustine sets God up as a being so immense and great that there is no possibility that any part of the human body could contain his power. The textbook published Augustine’s work under the heading "Representative Texts," showing its incredible importance in describing the ideals of the Medieval era. The Confessions and Beowulf together show the incredible trust that the people of this time placed in God and higher powers as opposed to themselves.
The last period to consider in this cycle is that of Renaissance Europe. The people of the Renaissance were striving for potential in creativity, belief in the self once again; they were very much into science for humanity, in the process of a "rebirth." Davis’s title for this section of literature even reflects the feeling of the age, "Power and Discovery." The people of this time dove heavily back into the realm of deriving truth from within themselves instead of from God or a higher power, although they seem slightly more influenced by it. Two works of this period stand out as heavily influenced by this regained philosophy, Dr. Faustus, by Christopher Marlowe, and the writings of Martin Luther, the great reformationist. Dr. Faustus is considered by the textbook to be a "representative text" of the Renaissance period, just as St. Augustine’s work to the Medieval period. In Dr. Faustus, Faustus, although he goes to hell for his individuality, rejects the ideas of the church and the "standard, established" doctrine. His individuality shines brightly from the beginning of the work as he blasphemes the Bible and other works: "What doctrine call you this. . .? Divinity, adieu! / These metaphysics of magicians, / And necromantic books are heavenly. . ." (Davis, 1558). Faustus speaks of how ridiculous the Bible sounds, and how silly its harsh penalties, showing his disrespect for established doctrine, then proceeds to praise the opposite works: "Lines, circles, letters, and characters; / Ay, these are those that Faustus most desires" (Davis, 1558). Shortly thereafter, Faustus belittles the "common" ideas of the general public, and asserts his ability to think independently: "Philosophy is odious and obscure; / Both law and physic are for petty wits; / Divinity is basest of the three. . ." (Davis, 1559). Were such statements repeated in the presence of almost anyone important, Faustus would be considered a heretic. In this way, Dr. Faustus sets himself up as one of the great fictitious individualists. Another outstanding individualist of the times was Martin Luther, the great church reformationist. Luther supported individuals owning copies of the Bible translated into German so that they could interpret it for themselves instead of having a priest tell them what to think about it. In a speech called "Speech at the Diet of Worms," he backs his individualism by supporting writings of his that were considered heretical against the Catholic church. Luther’s works represent an interesting blend of the individualist and theistic principles as he uses the latter to uphold the former: "I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not retract anything, since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience" (Davis, 2208-2209). His "conscience" in this case is his individual sense of right and wrong, and Luther will not back down from support of this sense, upholding what he has written, individualist as it may be, just as Antigone would not back down from her conscience and beliefs. Thus, the ideals of this movement are very similar to those of the Ancient period, influenced slightly by those of the Medieval period.
In conclusion, from the Ancient period, through the Medieval period, to the Renaissance period, the philosophy of the literature forms a complete cycle from individualistic transcendentalism, to selfless theism, back to the individualist ideas, seeming to coincide neatly with the times of each era. As the literature of today becomes more and more romantically based and we probably draw close to the end of an era, we must ask ourselves, does the cycle continue? The Renaissance was followed by an almost purgatory spiritual reformation movement. In America, these cycles seem to have accelerated until they are a perceivable oscillating phenomenon - individualist in the 1960s, theist spirituality through the 1980s, and another transcendentalist movement in the 1990s, each shift pushing the two ideas closer together. Perhaps one day in the near future, these ideas will become similar enough in nature that they are somewhat joined to form a more moderate philosophy in society. Works Cited
Davis, Paul, et al., comp. Western Literature in a World Context. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995Partner sites: Rottweiler, Spanish immersion program Spain, and Free Death of a Salesman Essays