Rosenberg notes that Gilgamesh is probably the world's first human hero in literature (27). The Epic of Gilgamesh is based on the life of a probably real Sumerian king named Gilgamesh, who ruled about 2600 B.C.E. We learned of the Gilgamesh myth when several clay tablets written in cuneiform were discovered beginning in 1845 during the excavation of Nineveh (26). We get our most complete version of Gilgamesh from the hands of an Akkadian priest, Sin-liqui-unninni. It is unknown how much of the tale is the invention of Sin-liqui-unninni, and how much is the original tale. The flood story, which appears in the Sin-liqui-unninni version, is probably based on an actual flood that occurred in Mesopotamia around 2900 B.C.E. (26).
The Sumerian culture influenced the entire Near East (Swisher 13). The success of their culture was dependent on the agricultural viability of the area. Every year there were floods which provided rich silt for successful farming that encouraged the people to stay in the same area year after year instead of migrating to find new areas for crops (19).
There are indications that the Sumerians were composed of two different peoples which mingled in the same area. The Semites are believed to have mixed with the Highlanders. The Semites were patriarchal hunters and more warlike than the Highlanders. The Highlanders were matriarchal and peaceful. Swisher suggests that there is evidence of both social groups and that the combination of the two led to changes in the perception of the roles of the gods and goddess as well as the men and women (21).
Sumer was originally small groups of people that eventually grew to form cities. As a country it included 13 cities (34). The cities grew into city-states which were ruled by kings. As the city-states and their kings evolved, the four economic classes developed. They included the noble, the commoner, the client, and the slave (37).
Women were allowed to own property and do business. Men enjoyed the ability to divorce or take a second wife in the event that the first wife was unable to bear children. Children appear to have been viewed as the property of the parent and without rights (38).
The time of economic prosperity that the agricultural gains provided allowed inventions to become more important. The inventions helped society advance further. One of the most important inventions at this time was animal husbandry (39).
There are also indications that the people believed in an afterlife. The tombs which were excavated in recent times contained earthly riches such as beads, earrings and knives which would have been useful to the deceased (42).
Between 4500 and 2500 BC, there was a period of expansion and growth in the economy and political environment of the Sumerians. Intellectualism and artistry flourished as a result (Mallowan 98-106). Kings who gained enough power and wealth conquered weaker city-states and burned or destroyed cities. These cities were later rebuilt as each one was destroyed (Swisher 45-46).
The perception of their natural surroundings were similar to that of the Greeks. It was believed that the earth was a disk surrounded by mountains which held up the sky. The sky was a dome that was filled with air. Under the disk was the Underworld and all around this entire world was a great sea that kept everything in place (47).
With this understanding of their surroundings and the leisure to think philosophically and artistically, the Sumerians also developed eight categories of literature. These categories were: myth, proverbs, epic tales (such as Gilgamesh), percepts (or rules for conduct), hymns, lamentations, essays, and historiographical documents. They are especially well known for their contributions to literature (52).
The Epic of Gilgamesh can tell us much about the Sumerian culture. For instance, the Sumerians obviously valued the qualities Gilgamesh exhibited, since they have made him their hero: strength, courage, and wisdom. We see Gilgamesh persevere through trial after trial in his effort to discover the secrets of immortality, and therefore we can guess that perseverance was highly prized. We know from the tale that the Sumerians were a literate people, because the narrator indicates that Gilgamesh "inscribed his travels and his thoughts upon stone tablets . . ." (28), and that they prized knowledge, especially self-knowledge.
From Gilgamesh's ancestry--part god, part human--we can divine (pun intended) that the kingship was a joining of politics and religion. The king was considered a divine being, entering into a symbolic marriage with the temple goddess (represented by a high priestess) each year (Adamson 75). The king was also expected to be a good warrior in order to protect his people. Gilgamesh was apparently both. Imagery and Themes animal versus civilized - Enkidu is animalistic, but innocent and compliments Gilgamesh who is civilized but behaves inappropriately for his role as king. forest - Gilgamesh and Enkidu must pass through the forest which is intimating and dangerous in order to become heroes and slay the monster Humbaba. The forest as danger is a common theme in literature. It can also be read as the unconscious in a psychoanalytic approach. It might represent death or humiliation in the epic. monster (Humbaba) - is symbolic of evil and duplicity. He cries out and inspires pity in Gilgamesh after failing to kill his adversary. He represents the challenge and enables Gilgamesh and Enkidu to prove their courage and worthiness in battle. speedy travel - (both on the way to fight Humbaba and to find Utanapishtim) - may represent the power of the hero and the blessing of the gods on his mission. sleep - Gilgamesh's deep sleep in both the journey to Humbaba and the trial for immortality seem to represent a small death. The Bull of Heaven - a symbol of patriarchy which is called for by a goddess and given by a god. The destruction of the Bull does not validate the goddess, but instead humiliates her and undermines the authority of the matriarchy. tunnel underground in quest for eternal life and deep sea to reach Utanapishtim - both imply a descent or crossing of death in order to receive eternal life. The apparent belief in an afterlife which is indicated by the burial with useful objects may show that eternal life is achieved after physical death. The Flood - recounted by Utanapishtim is representative of the purification of human life by the gods. Their transgressions are swept away (with most of the population) and they are reborn into a fresh, new world and relationship with the gods. Ark - the symbol of the gods' love of the humans and their interest in preserving the human race.
We also identified five themes in the Epic of Gilgamesh: Conflict between chaos and order, represented by nature and civilization; Man's quest for immortality and knowledge; Dealing with loss; Male bonding/brotherhood; Heroism (man's victory over nature).
