Potential Abuse of Cloning
It is understood that using forms of genetic manipulations has great potential, if the usage is based on the idea that it will be used to improve agricultural production, medicine technology, and the like. To use cloning as a coping device for those who mourn loved ones, or simply cannot deal with nature's life and death process, however, is simply wrong. It is not only idealistically wrong, but ethically, morally, and even lawfully unjust. If cloning human beings becomes a reality, it will be the process that will slowly deteriorate the diversity of the world, and the ability for people to deal with negative occurrences in their life.
Ethically and politically cloning seems to be breaking all the rules, already. Supporters of cloning are pushing for a reform of any law or constitutional right, banning cloning, to be changed. Cloning is currently backing an ethical uproar around religious communities, due to its new explosion of advancements. Contemplations of a new race, and its laws, are already in the making.Despite the hoards of people who are anxiously gathering to ban it, scientists are continuing to push forward with experimentations.Some of them believe that no matter if a person, or group, likes cloning or not, they better learn to deal with it because it will not be stopped.It is hard to say whether or not the growing populations who are against cloning will be able to do anything to prevent it as a whole, or even partially.Regardless of how the U.S. chooses to deal with this issue, each country has their own plans and opinions.There are many variations on the new cloning policies, and the outcome of this new technology will be very interesting to see.
There are three different types of cloning.The first two are somatic manipulation and germline genetic manipulation.Somatic manipulation only changes the somatic gene makeup of a single person (their physical appearance).Germline genetic manipulation, however, passes all manipulated genes throughout the future generations (so any odd physical appearance or disease that is eliminated in one child will be forever eliminated in it's heritage line) (Hayes pars. 10-11).
Many doctors are now suggesting parents test their unborn children and cure them of any maladies they could possibly encounter during their entire life through somatic manipulation (mostly including major outwardly physical disabilities).This way they can do everything possible to "perfect" their child's outward appearance and mental abilities prior to birth.To test the genes for any problems they use a process called amniocentesis (which can also be used in abnormal situations to find the sex of a child).For this process a doctor must stick a very long needle through the mothers stomach and into the amniotic sac (the sac which holds the unborn fetus/child).Once they have entered the sac they take a sample of the amniotic fluid contained within.The fluid that is taken will contain flakes of dried skin from the fetus, which can be tested to find what the baby's genetic makeup will be.
For people who have certain diseases, or mental disabilities, which run in their family, doctors are suggesting to completely modify their genetic makeup.By doing so they are assured a complete prevention of defective gene transmission.To perform this procedure doctors propose the usage of germline genetic manipulation.By using Germline genetic manipulation, all future generations within that heredity line will lack the genes that cause any minor or curable maladies.(Even though the genetic problem may not be a threat to the child's life, the doctors are still pushing parents to participate in amniocentesis just to eliminate any possibilities of transmission.)
The third type of cloning is nuclear transfusion.This type is the actual creation of a child from an unfertilized egg. It has been claimed that the procedure is very simple: a donor cell, or its genetic material, is inserted into an unfertilized egg.(The genetic material of the egg has been previously removed).Then the "reconstructed embryo" is placed into a surrogate mother who will carry it to term (Harley par 4).
A major question with nuclear transfusion is how identical will the clone be to the original human being?After all, the clones would be growing up in different environments, probably with different people, and would have been created in two different ways.
Another major difference between a normal human and a nuclear-transferred clone is that different women would be carrying the cloned embryos to term (in a model situation).Due to the clone being a creation, what kind of relationship could it have with its "creator"?This relationship could be related to an adopted child's relationship to its adoptive parents.This could be true in the sense that the parents would not be the birth parents, but there is still one questionable circumstance, how will the child feel about being a test tube baby?It may cause them to feel a lack of self worth and that they are merely a product or commodity to their "parents".They are regarded like a commodity instead of being cherished as a physically and spiritually made craft (Krimmel 40).
A concern with cloning in general is that it may not only change the conditions of our human existence, but the essential characteristics as well (O'Donovan 195).When two people make a child, that child is essentially a part of them, and they are a part of that child, just as Jesus was one with God (O'Donovan 195).However, the concern is not only religously oriented, it holds true that when a child is man-made, consequently, it lacks that personal relationship gained through the pregnancy and birth.
Many religious communities all around the world are outraged by the idea of cloning.It upsets them not only because man is trying to play God, but because of the amount of fetuses that must die in order for one to survive.There is also a problem with the diseases and disabilities clones will face such as age-related problems.Religious activist also question the ability of a clone to have a soul.If the child is created, it will not have the heavenly gifts that are provided by God.Therefore, it will lack a soul and many good morals that normal humans have.
Some major physical problems clones may experience are age related.Harley announced, "Cloned [people] arising from cells of older donors, or cells that have been in culture for extended periods of time, could have shorter telomeres [chromosomes] at birth and thus suffer an earlier onset of age-related diseases late in life" (par 15).So an undesirable risk with cloning children is that they will have varied, and ultimately, shorter life spans than normal humans.
Every country has its own separate outlook and regulations on cloning.Some are strictly against it because they feel it completely deviates the moral and ideological standing of that particular country.Other countries are overlooking the ethical issues of cloning and only considering their ability to use it as a source for economic growth.As of February 2000 almost every industrialized country had already banned germline manipulation and cloning, except for the U.S. (Hayes par 38).This is because germline manipulation is seen as potentially dangerous and very questionable considering it's effects will be permanent for a heredity line.
Cloning is also causing many debates among major firms because they already are trying to place patents on genes; although, a human clone has yet to be formed problem free.It is almost comparable to a stock market.They are getting involved in a business to buy and sell genes.Along side the American companies, are many multinational companies who are readily awaiting the opportunity to invest in cloning.By treating cloning as a stock, the multinational companies are enabling themselves to grow very powerful."Global pharmaceutical companies [have] spent US$3.5 billion in purchasing biotech firms, and the top firms [are beginning to] control disproportionately large percentages of the global market [already]" (Majithia par 18).
It seems that currently the technological advancements of cloning humans are growing and we are quickly approaching the final steps.The truth is, however, the closer we get to completion, the further another step pushes us back."The odds against humans attaining a genetic twin...are beginning to [recede] into [an] ethical never land" (Goodman A3).It is hard to understand why we are not advancing considering cloning has been claimed to be a simple task.
It has been argued that cloning will be an immeasurable benefit for the future of human beings, even though there are still many minor details that need to be worked out.Some scientists believe that if the fine details of cloning could just be worked out now in animals, then they could begin to clone humans.How do they know that the same techniques used to clone animals will work for cloning humans?Even the closest species that relates to a human, the chimpanzee, does not completely posses every aspect of humans reproductive system.Still yet, doctors and scientists are trying to convince the population that once cloning is perfected on animals it will be safe for humans to attempt. The potential side affects of using techniques after being tested in this manner would be deformed children, cancerous infants and other incurable diseases, which are unimaginable (which is actually ironic considering man is cloning children to perfect God's work).Another unforgettable side effect is that other animals that have been cloned were found to be missing certain internal organs, or systems such as the immune system, which they cannot live without.This is why a major argument against this procedure should be that just because certain techniques have proven to apply on other species, it does not mean they will necessarily apply to humans.
Alan Colman believes that there are two main reasons that reproductive cloning is unethical, it
would be unsafe and it would be inefficient (14).To successfully complete one nuclear transferred clone
it would require the sacrifice of multiple embryos for one woman to carry one embryo to term.Because
so many embryos are lost before proper implantation and full term pregnancy occurs, the woman
participating will commonly suffer psychological problems (due to multiple miscarriages and excessive
bodily manipulation).
The after affects of cloning will result in a great change of appearance, morals, and attitude of the American society (and any other society who wishes to progress in this technology).First, and foremost, it is likely that cloning will form an outburst of discrimination, socially, politically, and economically."Employers and insurers who have genetic information about individuals [will be] able to discriminate based only on genetic factor" (Knoppers 42).This could cause a person to be illegible for further employment or insurance for the rest of their life.
It is believed that if cloning does occur on a large-scale basis in the United States, an equality race will form and it may demote our current status to that of the 1950' and 1960's."Over time society will segregate into the "GenRich" who control the economy, the media, the entertainment industry and the knowledge industries and the Naturals, [will] work as low-paid service providers or as laborers" (Hayes par 5).Therefore, it is easily understood how serious the topic of cloning actually is.It could potentially become almost an effort to eliminate the inferior race, or the "naturals".Along those lines there is also a possibility that over time the "naturals" would be turned into a simple working class who only serve as laborers, where as the "GenRich" could be the most elite and only focus on the simple matters of life.
The new generation of nuclear transferred clones will be biologically advanced in many ways that could not be achieved by a normal human, without at least resorting to some type of genetic manipulation.The nuclear transferred clones would essentially, and theoretically, be "perfect".They would be disease free and lack all negative or unwanted genes.Ultimately the clones would evolve into a certain model, every clone would look exactly the same."[Their] health, appearance, personality, cognitive ability, sensory capacity and lifespan of children [will] all become artifacts of genetic manipulation" (Hayes par 5).
Because of the great differences that will exist between clones and normal humans, these would not be able to cross breed.The alterations made to the clones throughout time would eventually become so different from normal genes that they could no longer be compatible.In the future cloning will become an antidote for grieving.Ellen Goodman of the Courier Journal said, "They justify and sell cloning with the promise that you needn't mourn a child.You can resurrect them" (Goodman A3).
There is someone to be found who will either support or protest every aspect of biotechnology.As always, when a majority is formed there is always sure to be some type of change no matter how grand or small.Because there were so many religious groups and ordinary citizens who outright opposed all sorts of human related biotechnology, the government had to do something.In 1990 the Human Fertilization and Embryology Act was passed which stated that embryos had a special status and although they did not have the same rights as a child or an adult, unnecessary use of them was banned (Deech 95).Based on that act, it was decided it was mandatory that a group be created.The Human Fertilization and Embryology Authority (HFEA) was created in 1991 based on the ideas of the act.This group would be designed to regulate the use and storage of human embryos and gametes outside of the human body, and give some advice to the public on issues surrounding cloning technology.Therefore, in 1991, the Human Fertilization and Embryology Authority (HFEA) was established (Deech 95).
Because the technologies of cloning are advancing so quickly, new laws, bills, and court cases are beginning to appear daily.As it stands now, resulting from several court cases, the Supreme Court has stated that "procreative right...[is] a right to remain fertile, and not an uninhibited right to engage in potentially procreative conduct" (Smith and Iraola 261).
All applications of cloning are not necessarily bad.Scientist have found ways to genetically modify food which can produce healthier, and larger, fruits and vegetables.By doing so humans would not have to worry about crop shortage ever again.Another advantage is that nuclear transfer could be used to grow body parts commonly used for transplants.Cloning could also serve as a research method for scientist to learn more about the reproductive system and patterns of growth cycles (Harley par 8).Finally, cloning could help expand the population of any species that is endangered.As long as scientist are not trying to build people just for the sake of being able to do it, cloning will be more widely accepted.To genetically alter and create people, however, is ethically, morally, and lawfully wrong, and often will not be accepted or allowed.
Overall, when the ideas, and probabilities, of cloning are fully taken into consideration, it can be related to that of the Holocaust.Hitler wanted to eliminate the inferior race, just as cloning will eventually eliminate all persons who do not fit the general perception of perfection.It would not be an instance of simply killing any person that was deemed unworthy, it will be a process of Social Darwinism, only the fittest will survive and perpetuate.Essentially all of the poor and unhealthy will be weeded out.The only thing that will be gained in the future is a society lacking all signs of diversity and a world unable to cope with the natural process of life.
Works Cited
Aristotle. "On the Relationship of Parents and Children." The Ethics of Reproductive Technology. Ed. Kenneth D. Alpern. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1992. 132-134.
Colman, Alan. "Why Human Cloning Should not be Attempted." Foreword. The Genetic Revolution and Human Rights. By Richard Dawkins. Oxford: Oxford UP; 1999. 14-18.
Deech, Ruth. "Cloning and Public Policy." Foreword. The Genetic Revolution and Human Rights. By Richard Dawkins. Oxford: Oxford UP; 1999. 95-100.
Glover, Jonathan. "Eugenics and Human Rights." Foreword. The Genetic Revolution and Human Rights. By Richard Dawkins. Oxford: Oxford UP; 1999. 101-124.
Goodman, Ellen. "The Pro-Cloning Con Job." Courier Journal 3 April 2001, Daily ed.:A3.
Harley, Calvin B. "Cloning: Techniques and Applications in Human Health." Generations. 24.1 (Spring 2000): 65. Ebsco Academic. University of Louisville Ekstrom Lib., Louisville, KY. 7pp. 20 February 2001 .
Hayes, Richard. "In the Pipeline: Genetically Modified Humans?" Multinational Monitor 21.1/2 (Jan/Feb 2000): 29. Ebsco Academic. University of Louisville Ekstrom Lib., Louisville, KY. 4pp. 20 February 2001 .
Knoppers, Bartha Maria. "Who Should Have Access to Genetic Information?" Foreword. The Genetic Revolution and Human Rights. By Richard Dawkins. Oxford: Oxford UP; 1999. 39-53
Krimmel, Herbert T. "Surrogate Mother Arrangements from the Perspective of the Child." The Ethics of Reproductive Technology. Ed. Kenneth D. Alpern. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1992. 39-40
Majithia, Amit. "The Politics of Cloning: International Consensus and Genetic Technology." Harvard International Review. 21.4 (Fall 99): 36. Ebsco Academic. University of Louisville Ekstrom Lib., Louisville, KY. 4pp. 20 February 2001 .
O'Donovan, Oliver. "Begotten or Made?" The Ethics of Reproductive Technology. Ed. Kenneth D. Alpern. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1992. 195-202.
Radin, Margaret Jane. "Market-Inalienability." The Ethics of Reproductive Technology. Ed. Kenneth D. Alpern. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1992. 174-194.
Smith, George P. III and Roberto Iraola. "Equal Protection For Whom?" The Ethics of Reproductive Technology. Ed. Kenneth D. Alpern. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1992. 259-268. Partner sites: Rottweiler, Spanish immersion program Spain, and Free Death of a Salesman Essays