A transposition- like mechanism can be used for other types of DNA rearrangement reactions. Such mechanism is responsible for assembly of gene fragments during development of the vertebrate immune system. Vertebrates have two specialized cells namely T- cells and B-cells that dedicated to recognize the invading organism. B cells produce antibodies that circulate in the bloodstream. T-cell produce cell surface- bound receptor protein called T-cell receptor. These classes of protein able to recognized great diverse invader molecule then starts a cascade event to destruct the invader. Antibody diversity is generated by the rearrangement of variable region gene segments during the differentiation of the antibody- producing cells by a series of sequence-specific DNA rearrangement (Watson, Baker, Bell, Gann, Levine, & Losick, 2008). Antibodies are constructed of two copies each of a light chain and a heavy chain. The antigen binding site is constructed from VL and VH domains of the antibody molecule whereby sequence in this region is highly variable (Watson et al., 2008)). There is also domain of the antibody where the regions do not differ among different antibody molecules and is called “C” or constant. In developing B cells, DNA sequences of immunoglobulin unable to express directly from germ line so the individual gene segments must be rearrange to assemble a functional gene. During the development of B cells the V and J light-chain segments are spliced and join random by somatic recombination process. These segments are then brought together with CL-coding region by RNA splicing. Recombination produces variants of antibody chain. There are several mechanisms of generation of antibody diversity in human. Figure 1 below shows the f... ... middle of paper ... ...r discarded (Watson et al., 2008). Works Cited Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, K., & Walter, P. (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4th edition. New York: Garland Science. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21054/. Generation of Ab Diversity. (n.d.). Retrieved by December 12, 2013 from http://www.bio.tamu.edu/courses/microbio/notes/Generation%20of%20Ab%20Diversity.pdfMeyer, G. (2009). Immunoglobulins- Structure and function. Retrieved from http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/mayer/igstruct2000.htm. Pier, G. B., Lyczyak, J. B., & Wetzler, L. M. (2004). Immunology, infection, and immunity. USA: ASM Press. Teng, G., & Papavasiliou, F. N. (2007). Immunoglobulin somatic hypermutation. Annu Rev Genet, 41, 107-120. Watson, J. D., Baker, T. A., Bell, S. P., Gann, A., Levine, M., & Losick, R. (2008). New York: Cold Spring Harbor. .
The immune system is made up of a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect the body, and it defends the body from “foreign invaders.” Immunity can be divided in two three different defenses, and these are defined as first, second and third lines of defense. The first line of defense for the immune system is the primary defense against pathogens entering the body from the surface in order to prevent the start of disease and infection. Some examples of the first line of defense is the skin, protecting the external boundaries of the body, and the mucous membranes, protecting the internal boundaries of the body. Although the skin and mucous membranes work on the internal and external boundaries, they both release chemicals
Campbell, N. A., Reece, J. B., & Mitchell, L. G. Biology: Fifth Edition. Addison Wesley
Holder, W.T., McCord, D.L., and Turner, Ralph J. 1984. Isoimmunization with Anti-U Antibody. Journal of the National Medical Association. V.76 (3). Pg. 277-283.
“Understanding Vaccines.” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. N.p.: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 2003. N. pag. Print.
Wood, W. M., Karvonen, M., Test, D. W., Browder, D., & Algozzine, B. (2004). Promoting
Fulda, K. G., and K. Lykens. "Abstract." National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 25 Aug. 0005. Web. 18 Mar. 2014. .
Designing an antigen binding to the B-Cell Receptor (BCR) with high affinity. Accessibility of epitopes to a...
First of all, there are specific mechanisms, cells involved and stimulus for antibody production that need to be delineated. The specific mechanisms are activated in response to a specific pathogens. They are also active against a specific pathogen. Specific mechanisms also prevents reinfection gain immunity. The humoral and cell-mediated immune defense mechanisms induced against an infectious agent are specific in nature, i.e. the specific immune mechanisms act only against the microbe against which the responses were induced and not against other microbes. The stimulus for antibody production is an antigen, which is a substance such as bacteria or other agents that the body recognizes as ‘foreign.’
It is the case that an increased frequency of autoimmune diseases has corresponded with an increased use of vaccines over the past couple of years, which has led many to draw links between certain vaccines and autoimmune diseases. This fact in itself may be considered an argument in support of the idea that there is a link between autoimmune disorders and vaccines. However, looking at the matter from a biological viewpoint, many ...
The universal group is known as O+ or O-, reason being is that this unique group comprises of no agglutinogens, but has anti – A and anti – B antibodies in plasma concentration.
These cells are leukocytes that unlike phagocytes, are able to attack a specific foreign invader. Adaptive immunity develops once a person comes in contact with specific pathogens, or is vaccinated. Adaptive immunity is further divided into two subgroups: Humoral and cellular immunity. Humoral immunity involves proteins known as antibodies, made by B-lymphocytes. B-lymphocytes are white blood cells that originate and mature in the bone marrow. When a B cell matures, it can recognize a specific antigen, can distinguish the body’s cells from foreign invaders, and when fully mature can produce at least ten thousand unique antibodies.
The human immune system is all about synchrony and war. My interest in immunotherapy gained a solid foundation during my undergraduate internship at Morphogenesis Inc. As an eager intern, I studied underneath the principal scientist who was working on his own patent in cancer vaccinations. During my work there I was able to follow different animal patients from start to finish. Each patient had a different form of cancer, which meant the vaccination was personal to each one. In spite of all the differences the underlying problem was patients had a mutagenic disorder in their DNA.
Barker, V., Giles, H., Hajek, C., Ota, H., Noels, K., Lim, T-S., & Somera, L. (2008).