Wait a second!
More handpicked essays just for you.
More handpicked essays just for you.
Don’t take our word for it - see why 10 million students trust us with their essay needs.
Recommended: Effect of obesity
Obesity are defined as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that may impair health. The main goal of this review was to know a safe and effective anti-ghrelin vaccine for obesity, through the chemical conjugation of active ghrelin with NS1 protein tubules from the Bluetongue Virus (BTV) using a hetero-bifunctional cross linker. Ghrelin is a gut hormone that promotes weight gain by increasing appetite and food intake while decreasing energy expenditure All data and information obtained is used to discuss the issues that have been formulated. The data show that immunized animals present increasing titres of anti-ghrelin antibodies, while their cumulative food intake significantly decreased and energy expenditure was significantly enhanced, although there were no significative changes in body weight. This anti ghrelin vaccine using virus-like particles has a positive impact on energy homeostasis and may become an alternate treatment for obesity, to be used in combination with diet and exercise. Keywords: Obesity, Ghrelin, Vaccine, NS1 protein, The Bluetongue Virus (BTV), Virus-Like Particles Introduction Obesity are defined as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that may impair health. Obesity are the fifth leading risk for global deaths1. The prevalence of overweight, obesity, and extreme obesity has been increasing worldwide in the last decades, not only adults but starting as early as in childhood and adolescence1,2,3. More recent estimates suggest that body weight gain will continue to increase, particularly in the younger people4. Obesity has reached epidemic proportions in the United States: more than 20% of adults are clinically obese as defined by a body mass index of 30 kg/m2 or higher, and an additional 30% are ov... ... middle of paper ... ...omeostasis: lifting the lid on a black box. Proc Nutr Soc 2000; 59: 385-96. 18. Kojima M, Kangawa K. Ghrelin: structure and function. Physiol Rev 2005; 85: 495-522. 19. Lechner F, Jegerlehner A, Tissot AC, et al. Virus-like particles as a modular system for novel vaccines. Intervirology 2002; 45: 212-7. 20. Ghosh MK, Borca MV, Roy P. Virus-derived tubular structure displaying foreign sequences on the surface elicit CD4+ Th cell and protective humoral responses. Virology 2002; 302: 383-92. 21. Mikhailov M, Monastyrskaya K, Bakker T, Roy P. A new form of particulate single and multiple immunogen delivery system based on recombinant bluetongue virus-derived tubules. Virology 1996; 217: 323-31. 22. Dornonville de la Cour C, Lindqvist A, Egecioglu E, et al. Ghrelin treatment reverses the reduction in weight gain and body fat in gastrectomised mice. Gut 2005; 54: 907-13.
Türler, Hans, and Consuelo Salomon. "Simian Virus 40 as a Vector: Recombinant Viruses Expressing Individual Polyoma T Antigens." Virus research 54.2 (1998): 133-45. .
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is the most common virus in the United States that can infect almost any individual. Cytomegalovirus is also referred to as Herpesvirus-5, which belongs to a branch of Herpesviridae family. Herpesviridae has a spherical shape that contains four significant elements that are important to the viron. The four elements are the core, tegument, capsid and the envelope. Alphaherpesvirinae, Betaherpesvirinae and Gammaherpesvirinae are three subfamilies which belong to Herpesviridae. Cytomegalovirus belongs to the Betaherpesvirinae family, which also include Muromegalovirus and Roseolovirus. The Alphaherpesvirinae subfamily includes Simplexvirus, Varicellovirus, Mardivirus and Iltovirus genera. The Gammaherpesvirinae subfamily contains Lymphocryptovirus and Rhadinovirus genera. The diameter size of the virus is based on each specific family; however, the core remains the same throughout the species, which contains single layer of double stranded DNA tightly condensed in the capsid. In the tegument component, there are 30 or more viral proteins that are shapeless that encompass the capsid. Out of the four major components, the tegument has the most poorly defined structure. On the other hand, the capsid is a well-defined structure that is an icosahedron, which is composed of 162 capsomeres, 12 of which are pentons and 150 are hexons (1). Last but not least, the liquid envelope surrounds the tegument with approximately 10 glycoprotein and cellular proteins. Each subfamily under the herpesviriade has its own arrangement between the liquid envelop and the tegument layer.
The virus is primarily spherical shaped and roughly 200nm in size, surrounded by a host-cell derived membrane. Its genome is minus-sense single-stranded RNA 16-18 kb in length. It contains matrix protein inside the envelope, hemagglutinin and neuraminidase, fusion protein, nucleocapsid protein, and L and P proteins to form the RNA polymerase. The host-cell receptors on the outside are hemagglutinin and neuraminidase. The virus is allowed to enter the cell when the hemagglutinin/ neuraminidase glycoproteins fuse with the sialic acid on the surface of the host cell, and the capsid enters the cytoplasm. The infected cells express the fusion protein from the virus, and this links the host cells together to create syncitia.
Latency is defined as the silent persistence of the virus in the body, not detectable by conventional virological procedures (1). Infectious virus is only recovered from latently infected organs by prolonged culture of organ cells or co-culture of these cells with susceptible cells (5). Therefore, no infectious virus is reisolated in cell cultures inoculated with a triturated organ latently infected.
...us or bacterium used as the carrier. Recombinant vector vaccines are still being experimented on today, just like the DNA vaccinations. The only difference between recombinant vector vaccines and DNA vaccines is the fact recombinant vector vaccines use an attenuated virus or bacterium to introduce microbial DNA to the body’s cells. Scientists created this vaccine by observing nature, and how nature passes viruses along. Scientists noticed that viruses in nature latch on to the cells they want to inject, this caused scientists to figure out how to take parts of an attenuated virus and add genetic matter from other microbes into them. I know this sounds confusing, but it’s quite simple. Just think of it as poisoning the virus. Recombinant vector vaccines are very close to mimicking a natural infection, which causes the immune system to energize and start up sooner.
The first discovery was made in 1952, in the developing field of virology. Virology is the study of viruses and how they behave. To develop the vaccines for the viruses, researchers infected the HeLa cells with many types of infections, such as measles, mumps, and the infamous poliomyelitis virus, also known as Polio. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), whose mission is to save lives and protect people’s health security, Polio is a "crippling and potentially deadly infectious disease caused by a virus that spreads from person to person invading the brain and spinal cord and causing paralysis" (Freeman). Jonas Salk, who was a virologist at the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (NFIP), used inactivated viruses (virus particles grown in culture and then killed by a form of heat) to create a polio vaccine. Salk drew blood from about two million children, which the NFIP checked for immunization.Through the collection of many HeLa cells and trial and error, the polio vaccine wa...
The obesity in the US has drastically increased in the last few decades due to an increase in the consumption of unhealthy foods and reduced physical activity levels. Nearly 78 million adults and 13 million children in the United States are dealing with the health and the emotional effects of obesity every day. Because obesity has massive implications in regards to the health of our society, this issue is cited almost daily in the news, on radio and televisions, journals and magazines. According to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta (CDC) more than thirty percent of our adult population is diagnosed as obese, and there are several hundred of thousands of deaths each year that are associated with diseases caused by obesity as a primary contributing factor.
Wang BZ, Quan FS, Kang SM, Bozja J, Skountzou I, Compans RW. Incorporation of membrane-anchored flagellin into influenza virus-like particles enhances the breadth of immune responses. Journal of virology. 2008 Dec;82(23):11813-23. PubMed PMID: 18786995. Pubmed Central PMCID: PMC2583664. Epub 2008/09/13. eng.
First, the internalization of the virus was determined. Three stages were identified for the internalization to occur. These stages are as follows: Stage I- actin dependent movement on the cell surface. Stage II- Unidirectional movement toward the nucleus by use of microtubules. At this stage the virus is inside the cell and headed toward the lysosome. Internalization was found to occur at about 190 seconds. Stage III- Bidirectional movement within the cell and is dependent on microtubules as well. It was determined through experimentation that microtubule movement only occurs once internalization of the virus has
Obesity is a very common health problem in the U.S., and the number of people considered obese is forever increasing. More than 35.7% of U.S. adults are considered obese (“Adult Overweight”). The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism points out that “obesity is a chronic medical condition characterized by too much body fat” (Beeson, Hill, Wyatt). It is diagnosed by a number called the Body Mass Index or BMI. This number calculates the amount of body fat based on the person’s height and weight. The higher the BMI the more body fat obese people have which leads to obesity. An adult with a BMI between 25 and 29.9 is considered overweight. An adult with a BMI of greater than 30 is considered obese (“Adult Overweight”). While Obesity is an extremely serious problem in the U.S., this condition, except possibly for the cases of genetic and hormonal disorders, can be prevented by portion control, exercise, and eating a well-balanced diet.
Adult and childhood obesity have increased substantially in the last 30 years. Currently, 31% of adults and 18% of children are obese, as defined by their body mass index (BMI). The vast majority of obesity represents an imbalance in calories ingested vs. calories expended. Other causes of obesity (metabolic, medicines, and other diseases) are...
Omer, S. B., Salmon, D.A., Orenstein, W. A., deHart, M. P., & Halsey, N. (2009). Vaccine
Metcalf, T., & Metcalf, G. (Eds.). (2008). Perspectives on Diseases and Disorders: Obesity. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Cengage Learning
Although many individuals are uncertain about the increasing statistics associated with obesity, more than seventy percent of men and virtually sixty-two percent of women within the United States adult population are overweight or obese (Wilmore, Costill, & Kenney). Obesity refers to the condition of having an excessive amount of body fat. If an individual’s amount of body fat becomes too excessive, he/she is at a much greater risk of developing life-altering diseases such as heart failure, hypertension, type II diabetes, cancer, gallbladder disease, osteoarthritis, etc. (Wilmore, et al., 2008).
Obesity and overweight have became a global problem in the last decade, according to the World Health Organization back in 2005 approximately 1.6 billion adults over the of age 15 were overweight, at least 400 million adults were obese and at least 20 million children under the age of 5 years were overweight. Experts believe if the current trends continue by 2015 approximately 2.3 billion adults will be overweight and more than 700 million will be obese. The scale of the obesity problem has a number of serious consequences for individuals and government health systems. Obesity is a concern because of its implications for the health of an individual as it increases the risk of many diseases and health conditions. Being obese means having so much body fat that your health is in danger. However, being fat is simply not an opinion. Having too much body fat can lead to many diseases. Obesity and overweight have become a global problem in the last decade.