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theories of first language acquisition and second Language acquisition
first and second language acquisition theory
theories of first language acquisition and second Language acquisition
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1. Introduction
Different from foreign language learning, second language acquisition (SLA) refers to “the learning of a nonnative language in the environment in which that language is spoken” (Gass, 2001, P. 5). According to the research timeline conducted by Myles (2010), the theories of second language acquisition date back to 1957 when Skinner (i.e., the representative of modern behaviorism) proposes stimulus-operant-response (S-O-R) theory emphasizing imitation and habit-formation, which is then intensely critiqued by Chomsky asserting that children are born with ability to acquire language and they can create new sentences besides imitation. Later, Krashen’s Monitor Model takes shape and his input hypothesis is further developed. Since the theories of SLA are of great importance in language teaching in both ESL and EFL settings, many scholars have made effort to this field. Payne (2011) argues that Krashen’s theory seems to be defective among students with different levels in a real classroom context because the notion of ‘i+1’ is unclear.
After a brief introduction of SLA, this paper is aimed at analyzing my own English language learning experiences from behaviorism and Krashen’s theory. This paper consists of three parts. The first part is an introduction concerned with background knowledge of SLA. In the second part, application of behaviorism and Krashen’s theory will be displayed before the final conclusion part is presented.
2. Application of two theories
2.1 Behaviorism
According to the sketch made by Moore (2011), there are two phases of behaviorism: Watson’s classical stimulus-response (S-R) theory and Skinner’s radical behaviorism including the concept of operant (i.e., the possible behavior that peop...
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...nguage Teaching, 43(3), 320-332. doi:10.1017/S0261444810000078
Muncie, J. (2002). Finding a place for grammar in EFL composition classes. ELT Journal, 56(2),180-86. doi:10.1093/elt/56.2.180
Moore, J. (2011). Behaviorism. Psychological Record, 61(3), 449-463.
Nunan, D. (1998). Teaching Grammar in Context. ELT Journal, 52(2), 101-109.
Payne, M. (2011). Exploring stephen krashen's "i+1" acquisition model in the classroom. Linguistics and Education: An International Research Journal, 22(4), 419-429. doi:10.1016/j.linged.2011.07.002
Sheen, Y. (2007). The effect of focused written corrective feedback and language aptitude on ESL learners' acquisition of articles. TESOL Quarterly, 41(2), 255-283.
Williams, M., 1948, & Burden, R. L. (1997). Psychology for language teachers: A social constru-ctivist approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
The core of this theory is the distinction between acquisition and learning–acquisition being a subconscious process occurring in authentic communicative situations and learning being the conscious process of knowing about a language. The monitor model also includes the natural order hypothesis, the input hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, and the affective filter hypothesis. Together, these five hypotheses provide a structure for, and an understanding of how to best design and implement, educational programs for language-minority students. Krashen put his theory into practice with the creation of the natural approach and the gradual exit model, which are based on a second tenet of bilingual education–the concept of comprehensible input. In other words, language teaching must be designed so that language can be acquired easily, and this is done by using delivery methods and levels of language that can be understood by the
I have never thought that essay writing could be so hard and stressful. However, when I started my first ESL course, which was ESL 263, I was proven wrong. First of all, I didn’t know anything about essay writing. That class was my first experience in English writing. I wanted to drop the class so many times. Essay writing was just so stressful. I remember our instructor telling us that ESL 263 is an easy class compared to ESL 273. Of course that freaked me out. I started questioning myself if I really want to continue studying. Obviously, I kept studying. Nonetheless, I wanted to drop ESL 273 also. I’m glad I stayed in this class because I learned a lot and I can see improvements in my writing. I can say I am ready for ESL 5. As I reflect
In the ELL classroom, several effective methods will promote and foster English acquisition, include modeling, rate of speech and wait time, use of nonlinguistic cues, giving instructions, and encouraging development of L1. Modeling promotes learning and motivation by developing self-confidence. It helps them “believe that they too, will be successful if they follow the same behavioral sequence.” (CITE p. 10- 29). Modeling is one way for teachers to provide students with comprehensible input in order to help students process content more “deeply and comprehensively” (CITE p. 10- 30). Teachers should model...
...n is often a welcome relief from guided conversation in the foreign language; and a five-minute session of English only can give students a sense of true accomplishment. Many teachers believe that they only need to make sure the kids are having fun in language class, as though having fun were the one and only criteria for success in ESL. On the other end of the method spectrum, there are language classes whose teachers demean students who do not respond to their textbook approach to language instruction. Neither extreme, fun or misery, is truly effective. The LLS approach takes the best that ESL theorists have to offer and incorporates it with techniques that work in the classroom. In the end, teachers have a huge challenge in teaching their students all the components of English so that they may be formidably competent on all levels in their newly acquired language.
The main theory used in this study will be Krashen’s Input Hypothesis; the ‘i’ as the students’ familiarity with the stories and the +1 as the target language acquired. Teachers must provide students with opportunities to use meaningful language and, allow for immediate corrective feedback.
Language Acquisition, National Order Hypothesis, Input Hypothesis, Monitoring Hypothesis, and the Affective Filter Hypothesis. According to Krashen’s, language learning refers to a conscious effort to learn a new language while language acquisition is acquired through a subconscious level. The best example I have for understanding the language learning versus the language acquisition is through my personal experience. Before I entered elementary school, my first language acquisition was speaking Spanish because I was surrounded by family members and friends who communicated in Spanish only, and then when I entered the elementary school, I learned and acquired the English language through my social school environment and academic classes in English. I acquired the Spanish language subconsciously because it was a requirement for communicating with members of my family as well as my friends and the acquirement of the English language happened while communicating socially with friends at the school environment and finally I learned the English language through the educational academic classes taken while attending school through a conscious
One of the classical accounts of language acquisition emerged by Skinner (1957) who was a behaviourist psychologist. In his studies he revealed that rewards and punishment can shape learning in a simple way: if a behaviour is rewarded, it is more likely to be repeated, whereas a behaviour which is punished or not rewarded i...
For decades, foreign language teachers wandered in a scientific abyss. Until 1983, there had been little real research dealing with the ways in which someone acquires a second language. Teachers mostly used the audiolingual classroom model that had been in place for the past twenty years (or, even worse, the literally ancient grammatical translation model that had been used by civilizations millennia old). Clearly, language teaching methodology was in a poor situation. In 1983, however, Krashen published the results of an unprecedented body of research and paved the way for a revolution in our field. His five-point hypothesis focused on the difference between the acquisition of and the learning of a second language. Krashen has his detractors, of course, not the least of whom are American school districts, which have been reluctant to implement his teachings. Most experts agree, however, that his ideas are the most meritorious of the theories in circulation now, and schools that refuse to incorporate them are doing their students a disservice.
Thus, correction symbols, as many teachers see it, seem to be a useful strategy for second language learners. Riddell (2001) states that teachers can use correction symbols (correction codes) to feedback to students on their writing (2001, p 157). Teachers can underline the errors to signify the mistakes and write the symbols for these mistakes in the margin. Then students can correct the mistakes by themselves (p. 157). Hedge (1988) suggests that teachers can indicate “and error and identify the kind of error with a symbol, e.g. wo = wrong word order” (p.151). This means that teacher can use correction codes when feeding back on writing tasks and the students should find out the errors they made from the symbols and re-write it again with the corrected mistakes. This strategy “encourages learner independence” (Riddell, 2001, p 152), and students become more responsible for their learning. Also it seems that L2 learners can learn better from their mistakes and when they correct their work by themselves (Ferris, 1995). Furthermore, several research studies have demonstrated that errors feedback can help students to improve their accuracy in the short term (Ferris, 1995). For example, it was found that ESL student writers were able to successfully correct errors during revision after receiving teacher feedback. A numbe...
Gerngross, G & Puchta, H. (1992). Creative Grammar Practice: Getting Learners to Use Both Sides of the Brain. England: Longman Group UK Limited
Various studies have observed the impact of incidental learning vs. intentional learning. As expressed in Schmitt´s (2008) review, although learners acquired new vocabulary it was at the expense of acquiring adequate knowledge of
The lesson is designed to give implicit exposure of grammatical features to the students. In some sections of the lesson (e.g. warming up activity and transi...
The question of whether receiving error corrective feedback can actually hurt an ELL student’s ability to learn is the focus of the Error Correction Hypothesis. Stephen Krashen, in his Affective Filter Hypothesis, puts forth the idea that learners have an Affective Filter which is triggered by emotional variables such as anxiety or stress. Once activated, this filter can operate as an unintended barrier, hindering one’s ability to receive input, and therefore learning. As a result, Krashen advocates for limited error correction in second language instruction, and primarily as a clarification in meaning.
Williams, M., 1948, & Burden, R. L. (1997). Psychology for language teachers: A social constructivist approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
As the global communities migrate from their native home lands to new countries and regions, the need to learn a new language becomes an imminent requirement. Learning second language for an individual with not back ground to the language can be a serious proposition which can results in seriously straining the individual. This makes it very important to select a learning strategy very carefully to prevent complicating the learning process and also one which will help speed up the entire learning process (Bitchener 2007). With this in mind there are three main approaches linked to learning a 2nd language namely the behaviourist, Halliday’s and Chomsky’s approaches. Each of these adopts different learning theories but that all promote